Small  Saw  1: 


ihrary 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 
BULLETIN  No.  718 


Contribution  from  the  Forest  Service 
HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Forester 


Washington,  D.  C.  T  December  17, 1818 

SMALL  SAWMILLS 

Their  Equipment,  Construction,  and  Operation 

By 
DANIEL  F.  SEEREY,  Logging  Engineer 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Object  of  the  Bulletin 1 

General  Suggestions  for  Portable  Sawmill  Owners  ....         2 

The  Mill  and  Milling 11 

Logging 38 

Appendix .57 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1918 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

BULLETIN  No.  718 


Contribution  from  the  Forest  Service 
HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Forester. 


Washington,  D.  C. 


December  17,  1918 


SMALL   SAWMILLS:   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   CON 
STRUCTION,  AND  OPERATION. 

By  DANIEL  F.  SEEREY,  Logging  Engineer. 
CONTENTS. 


Object  of  the  bulletin  

Page. 
1 

Circular  saws 

Page. 
25 

General    suggestions    for    portable    sawmill 

Log  deck  .  . 

31 

owners                                 

2 

Narrow  gauge  lumber  lorry  track 

32 

Look  before  you  leap  

2 

Setting  up  a  portable  mill 

32 

Capital  required.              

3 

Operating  the  mill 

34 

Credits  .  .                        

3 

Sawing 

35 

Cost  keeping  

3 

Piling  lumber. 

37 

Organization  

4 

Fire  protection 

37 

Millsite... 

5 

Logging 

38 

Labor 

5 

Saw  crew  and  equipment 

38 

Commissary 

7 

Crosscut  saws 

39 

Marketing 

7 

Notching  and  felling 

41 

Gradin0'  lumber 

8 

Preparing  special  products 

42 

Vuxiliarv  products  .  . 

9 

The  main  logging  road 

44 

Some  don'ts  for  sawmill  operators.. 

9 

'      Skidding 

45 

The  mill  and  milling  .  .                         

11 

Skidwavs  . 

46 

Regular  equipment  

12 

Chutes.  . 

48 

Auxiliary  equipment  

15 

Loading  logs  .... 

49 

Engines  and  boilers  .  .  . 

16 

Scaling 

51 

Water  power  .  . 

21 

Logging  outfit 

53 

Belting 

22 

57 

OBJECT  OF  THE  BULLETIN. 

Running  a  portable  sawmill  is  no  longer  an  easy  occupation.  The 
more  accessible  timber  in  the  West  has  mostly  been  cut  out  or  burned, 
and  to-day  the  principal  stands  are  far  back  in  the  hills,  making  log- 
ging and  milling  expensive  as  well  as  strenuous  work.  Profitable 
operation  calls  for  first-class  logging  equipment  and  'mtfdewi  mills, 
and  for  good  business  ability,  skill,  and  hardihood  on  the  part  of  the 
operator.  Physical  weaklings  are  more  out  of  place  in  logging  work 
than  in  any  other  kind  of  virile  employment.  Mere  physical  strength, 
however,  is  not  in  itself  sufficient.  A  successful  logger  needs  to  be 
"strong"  in  the  head  as  well  as  in  the  muscles. 

This  bulletin  offers  to  portable  sawmill  operators  suggestions 
regarding  methods  of  organization,  milling,  and  logging  which  have 

63262°— 18 1 


437621 


2  BULLETIN   718,  U.   S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

been  proved  ty  experience  to  give  the  best  results.  It  is  meant  par- 
tvuiai  ly  for  opQiiatojis  in  National  Forest  timber,  but  should  be  useful 
to  other  owners  of  portable  mills  where  conditions  are  like  those  in 
the  National  Forests. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PORTABLE  SAWMILL  OWNERS. 

LOOK  BEFORE  YOU   LEAP. 

Before  purchasing  a  new  mill  or  moving  an  old  one  to  a  new 
location,  an  operator  should  carefully  inform  himself  regarding  the 
following  points : 

Amount  of  timber  available  for  his  operations. 
Kinds  and  grades  of  lumber  the  timber  will  produce. 
Density  of  the  stand  and  conditions  governing  its  cutting  and 

removal. 

Method  of  marking  timber  to  be  cut. 
Method  of  scaling  and  lengths  allowed  for  trimming. 
Penalty  scale  for  broken  trees  and  logs  left  on  the  ground. 
Length  of  time  each  year  during  which  operations  can  be 

profitably  carried  on,  and  annual  cut. 
Labor  and  supplies  required  and  working  capital  necessary  to 

finance  the  job. 

Margin  of  profit  on  which  the  business  can  be  operated. 
Stumpage  prices  and  how  obtained. 
Payments  and  manner  of  making  them. 
Logging  costs  and  methods. 
Number  of  teams  available  for  logging,  for  delivering  lumber, 

and  for  hauling  supplies. 
River  and  road  improvements  necessary. 

Brush  disposal,  and. cutting  and  utilization  of  defective  timber. 
Capacity,  equipment,  and  power  of  mill. 
Milling  or  manufacturing  costs. 
Distance  to  market  and  condition  of  roads. 
Capacity  of  market  and  prices  for  different  grades. 
Competition. 

Possibility  of  establishing  a  small  retail  yard. 
Amount  _of  lumber  which  market  conditions  require  to  be  car- 
ried in  stock. 

Market  for  by-products,  such  as  mine  timbers,  railroad  ties, 
telephone,  telegraph,  and  power  poles,  field  posts,  cordwood. 
Responsibility  for  fire. 
Sanitary  regulations. 

If  there  is  doubt  about  your  ability  to  meet  any  of  the  conditions 
affecting  the  operation,  go  slow.  It  is  a  great  deal  better  to  find  out 
beforehand  that  the  chances  are  against  success  than  to  discover, 
this  fact  only  after  you  are  in  and  can't  get  out. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT/ ETC.  3 

CAPITAL   REQUIRED. 

Insufficient  working  capital  is  one  of  the  prime  causes  for  the 
failure  of  a  small  sawmill  to  make  a  reasonable  profit.  Even  in  a 
small  operation  considerable  working  capital  is  necessary  for  cur- 
rent expenses.  Money  must  be  available  to  pay  for  the  equipment 
of  the  mill,  the  wages  of  the  crew,  the  building  of  sheds,  tracks,  yard, 
bunk  and  cook  houses,  stables,  and  blacksmith  shops,  and  for  cur- 
rent expenses  and  repairs.  Money  is  needed  to  carry  a  stock  of 
lumber  on  the  mill  yard.  These  items  of  expense  should  be  worked 
out  in  advance,  and  when  money  is  not  available  at  reasonable  rates 
of  interest,  the  prospective  operator  will  be  prudent  if  he  resists  the 
desire  to  become  a  sawmill  owner.  While  it  is  true  that  a  few  have 
made  a  success  from  a  very  slender  financial  start,  the  chances  of 
doing  this  are  so  remote  that  to  embark  in  the  sawmill  business 
without  the  requisite  capital  is  more  of  a  gamble  than  a  legitimate 
business  proposition.  A  junked  mill  with  an  accompaniment  of  a 
few  old  axes  and  broken-down  teams  and  harness,  a  rusty  cross-cut 
saw  or  two,  and,  worst  of  all,  several  big  bills  and  perhaps  a  mort- 
gage, make  a  poor  showing  after  several  years  of  hard  work. 

CREDITS. 

The  unwarranted  extension  of  credit  is  an  almost  universal  prac- 
tice, among  small  operators,  and  usually  results  in  disaster.  The 
successful  mill  man  sells  for  cash  or  negotiable  paper.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice,  however,  to  sell  a  load  or  two  of  lumber  on  time  right 
along,  even  though  the  man  who  sells  it  owes  his  employees  for  labor 
or  the  merchant  for  supplies.  If  such  a  man  is  not  mighty  alert, 
he  will  soon  find  himself  badly  in  arrears  with  his  payments. 
Should  that  come  about,  the  end  of  his  career  as  a  sawmill  operator 
is  in  sight. 

COST  KEEPING. 

The  most  important  step  in  the  operation  of  a  sawmill  is  the  open- 
ing of  a  simple  set  of  books  in  which  is  recorded  faithfully  the  cost 
of  everything  relating  to  the  business.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  rec- 
ord an  operator  is  sailing  on  an  unknown  sea  "  without  chart  or  com- 
pass." Yet,  except  in  a  very  few  cases,  this  necessary  side  of  the 
*•  business  is  entirely  neglected.  In  a  long  experience  with  portable 
mill  owners  it  was  not  until  quite  recently  that  the  writer  met  one 
who  gave  it  proper  attention. 

No  elaborate  system  of  cost  keeping  is  needed  by  the  small  opera- 
tor. All  that  is  required  is  some  simple  form  of  accounting  by  which 
he  can  tell  the  value  of  his  investments,  the  cost  per  thousand  feet  for 
>  I°c2mg  and  milling,  the  stumpage  cost  per  thousand,  the  cost  of  re- 
pairs and  new  investments,  the  depreciation  on  logging  and  milling 


4  -BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

equipment,  and  the  losses  incidental  to  his  business.  Over  against 
this  should  appear  the  value  of  the  lumber  sold  by  grade  and  the 
value  of  the  yard  stock  by  grade.  Keeping  a  record  of  this  kind  is 
something  that  the  average  mill  man  is  thoroughly  competent  to  do 
himself,  or  he  can  get  some  member  of  his  family  to  do  it  for  him.  A 
salaried  bookkeeper  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable;  he  would  cost 
too  much.  Once  started  on  a  simple  system  of  cost  keeping,  the  op- 
erator will,  it  is  safe  to  say,  be  so  much  interested  in  the  knowledge 
and  insight  which  it  gives  him  of  his  business  that  he  will  need  no 
urging  to  keep  it  up. 

While  on  the  subject,  it  is  pertinent  to  remind  operators  that  hay, 
grain,  vegetables,  meat,  etc.,  which  are  produced  on  their  ranches 
and  consumed  on  their  logging  operations  should  be  charged  against 
the  sawmill  account  at  the  same  price  they  would  have  cost  if  or- 
dered from  a  storekeeper.  The  operator's  own  time,  as  well  as  that  of 
his  team  while  employed  on  the  logging  job,  should  also  be  charged  to 
operating  expenses.  Very  few  sawmill  men  do  this,  the  general 
idea  seeming  to  be  that  if  the  business  pays  for  the  hired  help  and 
merchandise  actually  purchased  from  the  store  it  is  doing  all  that  can 
be  expected  of  it.  Many  operators  seem  to  think  that  because  they 
have  made  no  money  in  the  past,  there  is  no  possibility  of  making  a 
better  showing  in  the  future.  As  long  as  operators  have  this  feel- 
ing, it  is  morally  certain  that  their  condition  will  remain  unchanged. 
Only  when  the  men  in  the  industry  realize  that  they  are  engaged  in 
a  pursuit  which  calls  for  the  best  that  is  in  them,  and  that  increasing 
profits  will  reward  their  efforts,  will  the  portable  mill  business  take 
and  hold  its  proper  place  among  the  staple  industries  of  the  country. 

ORGANIZATION. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  an  operator  can  organize  his  logging 
and  milling  work  to  obtain  satisfactory  results  and  at  the  same  time 
know  approximately  how  much  each  operation  costs.  One  way  is  to 
keep  the  logging  distinct  from  the  milling,  preferably  carrying  on 
the  former  during  fall  or  winter,  provided  snow  is  not  too  deep.  By 
this  plan  sufficient  logs  can  be  piled  up  in  the  mill  yard  or  skidded  up 
along  the  main  road  to  keep  the  mill  running  during  the  season. 
The  other  and  less  desirable  way  is  to  take  the  entire  crew  into  the 
timber  and  cut- logs  ahead  for  the  season's  run,  afterwards  working 
enough  skidding  and  hauling  teams  to  keep  the  mill  supplied  with 
logs. 

The  usual  plan,  however,  is  to  log  for  a  few  days  and  mill  for  a 
couple  more.  This  plan  is  neither  economical  nor  efficient,  for  mill 
workers  are  very  rarely  good  loggers  and  loggers  are  very  rarely  good 
millmen.  Moreover,  the  axes,  saws,  and  logging  equipment  get  mis- 
laid or  are  thrown  aside  after  a  few  days'  use.  No  one  set  of  men  is 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  5 

responsible  for  keeping  them  safe  or  in  proper  trim,  and  so  valuable 
time  is  lost  in  assembling  the  equipment  and  getting  it  in  working 
condition. 

MILL  SITE. 

A  number  of  points  have  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
location  of  the  mill.  It  should  be  near  the  water  supply,  but  the 
buildings,  and  especially  the  toilets,  should  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent 
any  danger  of  the  water  becoming  polluted.  At  the  same  time  the 
mill  should  be  at  a  point  in  the  timber  where  there  is  from  500,000  to 
1,000,000  feet  of  stumpage  available  for  one  setting,  and  where  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  haul  or  skid  the  logs  over  long  distances  or  uphill. 
Because  a  mill  is  small  and  portable  is  no  reason  why  it  should  be 
moved  very  often,  unless  there  is  a  good  economic  reason  for  doing  so. 
Select  a  central  site  in  the  first  place,  where  water  and  other  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  and  move  only  when  the  cost  of  moving,  building 
new  roads  and  camps,  etc.,  can  be  saved  by  a  shorter  haul.  The 
operator  who  moves  his  mill  without  figuring  the  attendant  cost  is 
likely  to  find  that,  though  his  mill  may  be  small  and  portable,  the 
expense  of  a  new  setting  will  not  be  small  or  very  profitable  in  a 
financial  way. 

Yard  and  piling  space  must  be  provided  for  the  lumber  and  slab 
piles,  and  a  right  of  way  for  from  700  to  800  feet  of  narrow-gauge 
track  on  which  to  run  the  lumber  from  the  mill  to  the  yard.  There 
must  be  a  landing  deck  for  logs,  with  log  decks  and  skidways,  and 
provision  must  be  made  for  the  economic  handling  of  sawdust  and 
bark.  Convenient  locations  must  be  found  for  the  bunkhouse  and  the 
camp  dining  room  and  storeroom.  Toilets  and  covered  refuse  pits 
are  other  essentials. 

A  rough  ground  plan  of  the  proposed  plant  will  materially  assist 
the  operator  in  selecting  sites  for  the  different  buildings.  In  some 
instances  tents  can  be  substituted  for  wooden  structures.  Dry  wood 
for  domestic  use  is  sometimes  an  important  consideration.  The  entire 
area  round  the  mill  and  buildings  should  be  cleared  of  brush  and 
debris  and  kept  cleared.  Two  or  three  milch  cows  and  a  few  hogs 
and  poultry  can  be  maintained  around  a  small  mill  at  very  little 
expense 

LABOR. 

It  is  essential  for  the  success  of  a  small  mill  operation  that  the 
logging  crew  should  be  made  up  of  experienced  men.  Green  hands 
may  succeed  fairly  well  around  the  mill  handling  lumber  or  sawdust, 
but  the  woodsmen  must  be  trained  or  else  they  will  not  do  enough 
effective  work  to  pay  for  their  board.  Green  hands  attempting  to 
fell,  skid,  load,  and  haul  logs  are  only  about  25  per  cent  efficient, 
without  reckoning  the  loss  from  broken  timber,  split  trees,  etc., 


6  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

which  if  taken  into  account  would  reduce  their  efficiency  close  to 
zero.  The  custom  of  trading  lumber  for  inexperienced  labor,  so 
prevalent  in  many  places,  should  never  be  practiced  by  the  small 
operator. 

A  real  knowledge  of  how  to  handle  horses  is  very  essential  in 
logging.  Thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  good  horseflesh  is  ruined 
by  ill-tempered,  incompetent  teamsters.  No  part  of  the  operator's 
investment  needs  closer  supervision  than  the  hauling.  A  poor 
teamster  is  poison  (I  know  of  no  more  expressive  term)  to  a  good 
team.  An  operator  will  save  money  by  keeping  his  horses  idle  in 
the  barn,  no  matter  how  badly  their  services  are  needed,  rather  than 
allow  a  brainless  teamster  to  pound  them  through  the  timber  and 
over  rocks,  stumps,  and  mud  holes.  Discharge  such  a  person  at  once. 
Teams  when  properly  handled  will  be  100  per  cent  efficient  all  the 
time  and  thrive. 

High  wages  do  not  always  secure  the  service  of  competent  labor, 
particularly  in  woods  work.  One  gang  of  sawyers  may  cut  the  same 
amount  of  board  feet  in  logs  as  another  gang,  and  yet  may  cut  their 
logs  with  such  a  disregard  of  correct  lengths  and  of  crooks  and  with 
such  an  indifference  as  to  how  the  trees  are  felled  for  skidding  pur- 
poses that  the  value  of  their  labor  may  be  only  50  per  cent  as  much 
as  that  of  the  other  crew,  who  do  their  work  as  it  ought  to  be  done. 

The  millman  who  neglects  to  supervise  his  operations  rigidly  is 
surely  preparing  the  way  to  financial  disaster.  An  operator  usually 
works  hard  at  some  particular  job,  such  as  sawing,  and  leaves  the  rest 
of  the  work  to  run  itself.  His  proper  place  is  "  bossing  the  job,"  and 
if  he  does  that  thoroughly  he  will  have  his  hands  full.  In  order  to 
instruct  men  in  woods  work,  the  operator  must  understand  it  himself. 
If  he  lacks  this  knowledge  it  would  be  wise  for  him  to  keep  out  of 
the  portable-mill  business  or  else  hire  a  competent  man  to  run  it 
for  him. 

Clean,  wholesome  living  and  sleeping  quarters  for  the  men,  as  well 
as  properly  cooked  food,  deserve  close  attention — a  good  deal  more 
attention,  in  fact,  than  is  usually  bestowed  upon  them.  "  Sour 
dough  "  grub  and  rough  living  may  sound  very  romantic  in  a  cheap 
novel,  but  when  actually  practiced  they  fail  to  bring  results.  Pay 
the  men  good  wages  and  feed  them  well,  and  see  that  they  earn  it. 
Always  have  money  on  hand  to  pay  off  men  if  they  quit  or  you  dis- 
charge them. 

Make  it  very  plain  that  you  want  value  for  every  cent  you  pay 
in  wages  or  in  board.  Tolerate  no  "  deadheads  "  around  your  camp. 
Be  boss  yourself  or  delegate  the  job  to  some  one  who  is  qualified 
to  fill  the  bill.  Do  not  make  your  camp  a  dumping  ground  for  all 
your  male  relatives.  You  are  supposed  to  be  running  a  sawmill — 
not  a  rest  cure. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  7 

In  short,  inject  a  lot  of  energy  and  vigor  into  the  business,  or 
leave  it  to  some  one  who  can. 

COMMISSARY. 

Every  operator  should  keep  a  small  supply  of  dry  goods  in  stock 
for  the  use  of  his  men,  and  also  such  articles  as  tobacco,  matches, 
pipes,  medicine,  and  writing  pads  and  pencils.  Old  magazines  and 
books  are  easily  obtained  and  are  eagerly  read.  The  supplies  enumer- 
ated should  be  bought  in  bulk  or  by  wholesale,  in  order  to  cover  the 
cost  of  freight  and  handling.  Kerosene  and  lubricating  oils  should 
be  purchased  by  the  barrel,  and  enough  camp  supplies,  such  as  flour, 
feed,  pork,  potatoes,  hay,  groceries,  and  canned  stuff,  should  be  kept 
in  stock  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  sending  a  man  and  team  to  town 
every  week.  The  item  of  supplies  is  an  important  one  to  the  success 
of  the  job  and  should  be  handled  economically. 

MARKETING. 

Every  town  and  village  on  a  railroad  has  at  least  one  retail  lumber 
yard,  and  very  often  more  than  one.  It  is  one  of  the  first  insti- 
tutions to  be  established  after  the  advent  of  the  railway.  In  towns 
and  villages  remote  from  the  railway,  however,  lumber  yards  are 
seldom  in  evidence,  although  there  may  be  and  usually  are  half  a 
dozen  portable  mills  hidden  away  in  the  hills  in  the  vicinity.  Yet 
a  lumber  yard  is  as  much  a  necessity  and  could  command  as  much 
business  in  many  of  these  remote  communities  as  the  one  or  two 
yards  in  the  railway  town. 

Right  here  is  an  opportunity  for  wide-awake  portable  mill  owners 
to  establish  themselves  in  the  lumber  business.  The  surprising  thing 
is  that  so  few  have  taken  advantage  of  it.  If  a  rancher  needs  a  load 
of  lumber  and  sees  a  yard  right  in  town  he  will  buy  material  and 
take  it  home  with  him ;  whereas  if  he  knows  that  he  has  to  drive  to 
the  mill  10  or  12  miles  in  the  hills  over  a  wretched  road,  and  is 
not  sure  of  getting  what  he  wants  when  he  arrives  there,  he  will 
naturally  put  off  a  disagreeable  job  as  long  as  he  can.  Eventually, 
if  he  has  business  in  the  railroad  town,  he  will  purchase  from  the 
retail  yard  there.  An  occasional  short  item  in  the  local  paper  tell- 
ing the  public  something  about  the  activities  of  the  local  sawmill 
'  and  the  amount  of  lumber  turned  out  daily,  with  the  stock  on  hand, 
makes  interesting  reading  for  the  local  public,  particularly  for  people 
who  need  lumber. 

There  are  scores  of  towns  and  villages  in  the  inter-mountain  coun- 
try where  such  opportunities  exist  to-day.  Yard  space  would  cost 
very  little  and  teamwork  is  cheap,  and  the  millman  who  takes  a 
>  little  pains  in  milling  and  grading  his  lumber  and  putting  it  up  in 
neat  piles  will  soon  have  his  mill  running  steadily  to  keep  up  with 


8  BULLETIN    718,    U.    S.    DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE. 

the  demand.  There  is  little  to  be  gained  in  sawing  out  a  lot  of  lum- 
ber and  keeping  it  hidden  away  in  the  hills.  For  every  man,  woman, 
and  child  in  the  United  States  375  feet  of  lumber  is  used  annually;  in 
new  States  three  or  four  times  as  much.  Montana,  for  example,  uses 
1,234  feet  per  capita,  and  it  is  a  moderate  estimate  that  a  community 
of  500  people  will  use  up  a  quarter  of  a  million  feet  annually. 
A  small  mill  operator  who  opens  a  yard  and  keeps  100,000  feet  of 
lumber  in  stock,  along  with  a  moderate  amount  of  shingles,  lath, 
and  building  material,  can  establish  a  remunerative  business  very 
easily.  Be  it  understood  that  lumber  in  this  sense  means  lumber 
that  is  properly  sawed,  surfaced  (when  necessary),  edged,  trimmed, 
graded,  air  dried,  and  properly  piled.  You  can  not  run  a  successful 
lumber  yard  with  rubbish  anywhere. 

The  heaviest  demand  in  newly  settled  communities  is  for  low- 
grade  lumber,  viz,  No.  3  common  and  dimension,  the  very  class  of 
material  which  the  portable  mills  can  supply  most  readily.  The 
upper  grades  will  always  find  a  remunerative  market.  A  small 
mill,  if  properly  handled,  can  successfully  hold  a  competitive  market 
for  low-grade  lumber  and  dimension  against  similar  products  pro- 
duced in  a  large  mill  and  shipped  into  the  local  market. 

GRADING  LUMBER. 

The  necessity  for  grading  the  product  of  small  mills  can  not  be 
emphasized  too  strongly  or  too  often.  Every  millman  is  able  to  dis- 
tinguish between  good  and  bad,  rotten  and  sound  lumber,  and  what 
sort  of  a  log  is  best  adapted  for  inch  lumber  and  what  for  plank, 
dimension,  finish,  and  so  on.  But  when  it  comes  to  being  able  to 
tell  at  a  glance  what  defects  in  a  board  causes  it  to  grade  No.  1 
common  instead  of  inch  finish  very  few  can  make  an  intelligent  dis- 
tinction, yet  those  men  have  been  handling  such  lumber  perhaps  a 
lifetime.  They  have  simply  neglected  to  use  their  powers  of 
observation. 

The  Western  Pine  Manufacturers'  Association  of  Spokane,  Wash., 
issues  free  a  little  booklet  containing  the  rules  for  the  grading  of  pine, 
fir,  and  larch,  which  is  distributed  by  their  secretary  to  anyone  in- 
terested. To  a  man  handling  lumber  every  day  this  little  book  will 
be  invaluable.  To  have  lumber  to  sell  and  no  grading  rule  to  sell  it 
by  is  a  condition  that  spells  certain  loss  for  the  sawmill  owner.  If 
he  doesn't  study  grading  himself,  his  son  will,  with  the  result  that  the 
boy  will  learn  more  about  the  lumber  business  in  a  month  than  his 
father  has  been  able  to  pick  up  in  years.  There  is  no  "  royal  road  " 
to  a  knowledge  of  lumber  grading — you  must  learn  it  yourself. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  when  an  enterprising  mill  operator,  who 
has  adopted  modern  methods  in  milling  and  grading  his  output,  is 
negotiating  the  sale  of  a  bill  of  lumber  with  a  prospective  purchaser, 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,  THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  9 

another  operator  with  an  old  mill  up  in  the  hills  will  jump  in  and 
take  the  order  away  from  him  at  a  lower  price.  That  particular  bill 
of  lumber,  it  is  safe  to  predict,  will  be  sawed  in  any  old  way,  with 
the  result  that  the  purchaser  is  dissatisfied  with  the  material  he  gets, 
and  concludes  that  native  timber  is  no  good,  and  never  buys  any  more 
of  it.  By  this  sort  of  thing  the  unprogressive  mill  operator  spoils  a 
lot  of  good  lumber  at  no  profit  to  himself.  It  doesn't  pay  to  drive 
away  future  trade  for  the  sake  of  a  single  sale.  In  these  days  men 
no  longer  have  to  use  the  roughest  kind  of  lumber  for  lack  of  some- 
thing better.  They  may  use  it  once,  but  it  is  a  moral  certainty  that 
they  won't  come  back  for  any  more.  The  way  for  an  old-time  oper- 
ator to  get  and  hold  trade  is  to  turn  to  modern  methods,  not  to  try 
to  put  another  and  more  progressive  man  out  of  business.  A  new 
order  prevails  in  the  lumber  business,  and  no  one  knows  better  than 
the  small  millman  that  there  is  no  profit  in  logging  along  the  old 
lines.  A  determined  effort  must  be  made  to  get  out  of  the  old  rut  and 
place  the  portable  mill  industry  on  a  paying  basis. 

AUXILIARY  PRODUCTS. 

The  demand  for  lumber  and  dimension  stuff — the  regular  products 
of  the  mill— is  always  supplemented  by  a  demand  for  the  more 
finished  products,  such  as  planed  lumber,  siding,  flooring,  lath, 
shingles,  etc.,  which  require  special  machinery  for  their  manufac- 
ture. The  millman  will  find  that  he  can  get  more  for  his  best 
grades  of  lumber  if  he  can  furnish  them  as  required  by  the  local 
trade.  Considerable  waste  may  be  saved  in  the  utilization  of  short 
lengths  and  slabs,  which  otherwise  would  be  lost.  There  is  money  in 
reducing  waste  when  it  can  be  partially  transformed  into  a  salable 
product. 

SOME  DON'TS  FOR  SAWMILL  OPERATORS. 

Before  outlining  in  detail  the  necessary  equipment  for  a  portable 
mill  and  how  it  should  be  operated  a  few  suggestions  as  to  what 
to  avoid  or,  in  other  words,  what  not  to  do  may  not  be  amiss.  To 
mill  operators: 

1.  If  you  have  a  market  and  a  cutting  capacity  of  500,000  feet 
per  year,  do  not  enter  into  a  contract  with  the  Government  or  with 
anyone  else  to  cut  5,000,000  feet  in  three  years. 

2.  If  you  are  financially  unable  to  make  more  than  $300  in  advance 
payments,  do  not  sign  a  contract  to  pay  $500. 

3.  Do  not  sign  a  contract  with  the  Government  to  cut  timber  on  a 
National  Forest  without  carefully  going  over  the  area  and  finding 
out  for  yourself  what  species  of  timber  you  are  expected  to  cut  and 
where  it  is  located. 

4.  Do  not  try  to  fell  timber  with  a  dull,  rusty  cross-cut  saw  and 
wooden  wedges.    It  won't  pay. 

63262— 18— Bull.  718 2 


10  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

5.  Do  not  try  to  keep  your  axes  sharp  and  serviceable  with  a  rusty 
file.    Try  a  grindstone. 

6.  Do  not  try  to  skid  saw  logs  without  skidding  tongs,  swamp  hook, 
cant  hook,  and  chain.     Handspikes  and  hand-beam  levers  are  out  of 
fashion. 

7.  Do  not  try  to  haul  saw  logs  on  a  lumber  wagon.    Try  a  heaA^y 
truck  or  a  logging  sled  if  you  have  sufficient  snow. 

8.  Do  not  try  to  haul  saw  logs  uphill  or  over  rocks  and  brush. 
Build  a  road. 

9.  Work  steadily  and  systematically.    If  half  your  crew  leaves  on 
Saturday  and  does  not  return  to  work  until  the  following  Tuesday, 
get  steadier  men.     Blow  your  whistle  at  7  o'clock  every  morning 
and  get  to  work  a't  7,  not  9. 

10.  Do  not  unload  your  saw  logs  all  over  the  mill  yard  and  then 
roll  them  over  rocks,  boulders,  slabs,  brush,  and  mud  holes  with  a 
handspike.     Build  a  downhill  skidway  in  front  of  the  carriage,  and 
the  logs  will  roll  down  by  gravity. 

11.  If  your  mill  can  manufacture  10,000  feet  per  day,  see  that  it 
does  that  every  day  you  run  it.     Capacity  cutting  for  one  day  dur- 
ing the  season  does  not  count. 

12.  If  your  boiler  is  old  and  leaky,  get  it  repaired  and  inspected. 
A  rusty,  leaky  boiler  is  likely  to  stop  all  business  quite  suddenly. 
Watch  the  water  gauges. 

13.  Use  dry  slabs  and  clean  water  in  making  steam.     Green  slabs, 
dirty  water,  and  a  leaky  boiler  make  a  bad  combination.     Use  the 
mud  cock  frequently. 

14.  Do  not  try  to  manufacture  merchantable  lumber  with  a  dirty, 
rusty  engine  set  on  a  rotten  foundation  with  a  shaky  mandrel,  rotten 
belting,  a  saw  out  of  "  true  "  and  running  at  half  speed  under  insuffi- 
cient steam  from  a  leaky  boiler.     It  can't  be  done. 

15.  Do  not  expect  your  mill  to  be  a  profitable  business  if  you  leave 
your  mill  machinery  exposed  to  the  weather  the  year  round.     You 
will  soon  have  a  junk  pile,  not  a  sawmill. 

16.  Do  not  expect  to  get  the  value  of  your  lumber  if  you  throw  it 
in  a  heap  in  the  mill  yard  instead  of  piling  it  properly  and  grading  it. 

17.  Do  not  sell  your  lumber  on  credit  or  on  time.     You  have  not 
sufficient  capital  to  do  a  credit  business. 

18.  Do  not  keep  your  accounts  on  a  shingle  or  marked  up  on  a 
board.     A  small  Dr.  and  Cr.  account  book  is  much  more  satisfactory. 

19.  Do  not  try  to  run  a  sawmill,  however  small,  by  rule-of -thumb, 
hit-or-miss  methods  that  your  grandfather  practiced.      They  will 
not  work  in  this  day  and  age. 

20.  Do  not  forget  that  this  is  the  twentieth  century  and  that  the 
management  and  successful  handling  of  a  portable  mill  is  a  twen- 
tieth-century problem. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  11 

THE  MILL  AND  MILLING. 

If  the  operator  is  already  provided  with  a  mill,  the  size  of  his 
operations  will  depend  on  the  power  and  capacity  of  that  mill.  If 
he  plans  to  purchase  a  new  mill,  he  'should  figure  on  one  with  the 
power,  capacity,  and  equipment  necessary  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  his  capital,  his  market,  and  his  logging  equipment.  Lack  of  suffi- 
cient power,  even  for  driving  the  saw,  is  a  common  handicap  for 
small  mills.  An  effective  25-horsepower  engine  will,  if  properly 
handled,  keep  a  circular  saw  working  to  capacity  and  at  the  same 
time  will  run  a  small  planer  and  edger. 

The  type  of  mill  in  most  general  use  in  Forest  Service  District  4 
is  one  cutting  from  2,000  to  20,000  feet  per  day.  The  following  dis- 
cussion, therefore,  will  be  confined  to  two  classes  of  this  type,  one 
cutting  from  2,000  to  10,000  feet  per  day  and  a  heavier  one  cutting 
from  10,000  to  20,000  feet  per  day.  The  smaller  mill  will  be  called 
Class  A,  and  the  larger,  Class  B. 

SaAvmills  are  generally  classified  as  right  and  left  hand  mills, 
according  to  whether  the  log  passes  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  of  the 
saw,  viewed  from  the  front.  In  ordering  equipment  for  an  old  mill 
it  is  always  necessary  to  specify  whether  the  equipment  is  needed  for 
a  right  or  left  hand  mill. 

Portable  mills  are  usually  equipped  with  rack  and  pinion  or 
cable  drive,  and  friction  or  belt  feed  or  a  combined  belt  and  fric- 
tion feed.  Shotgun  feed  is  not  used  in  small  mills.  The  variable 
friction  feed  is  so  called  because  the  sawyer  can  vary  the  feed  to  cor- 
respond with  the  power  or  the  size  and  species  of  timber  to  be  cut, 
easing  down  on  knots  and  frozen  timber  and  increasing  the  feed  at 
will.  With  the  same  power  a  variable  friction-feed  mill  is  said  to 
cut  from  25  to  40  per  cent  more  than  a  belt-feed  mill..  There  are  no 
belts  or  springs  to  break  or  give  trouble.  The  belt  feed  is  a  combi- 
nation of  belt  and  flat  -face  frictions  so  arranged  that  the  feed  and 
gig  back  frictions  are  continuously  driven  in  opposite  direction  by 
an  endless  belt  direct  from  the  mandrel.  A  single  lever  operates  the 
feed  and  gig  back  by  shifting  the  bull  wheel  from  one  friction  to 
the  other.  The  shaft  of  the  bull  wheel  has  a  pinion  on  the  opposite 
end  which  operates  the  wire  cable  drum,  doing  away  with  all  inter- 
*""  mediate  gears  and  securing  a  strong  direct  drive  for  the  carriage. 
The  friction  shafts  have  babbitted  boxes  with  screw  adjustment  to 
take  up  the  Avear  in  the  frictions,  and  a  substantial  idler  is  provided 
to  keep  the  endless  feed  belt  always  tight.  Wire  cable  or  rack  and 
pinion  drum  can  be  used  on  both  belt-feed  and  friction-feed  mills. 

"  Never  buy  anything  because  it  is  cheap  "  is  a  form  of  advice  that 

>     applies  very  particularly  to  a  sawmill.     Going  a  little  further,  it 

might  be  laid  down  as  an  excellent  business  maxim:  Never  buy  an 

old  second-hand  mill,  no  matter  how  cheap  it  can  be  purchased.    Re- 


12  BULLETIN    718,   U.    S.    DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

gardless  of  type  or  make,  however,  a  mill  will  turn  out  to  be  a  lia- 
bility rather  than  an  asset  unless  it  is  set  up  properly  and  kept  in 
good  running  order,  and  the  work  conducted  on  a  business  basis. 

The  word  "  portable  "  as  defined  in  the  dictionary  means  "  capable 
of  being  borne  or  carried,  easily  transported,  conveyed  without 
difficulty."  The  average  portable  mill  owner,  however,  seems  to  take 
this  definition  too  literally,  for  when  he  purchases  a  new  mill,  or 
moves  to  a  new  site,  he  pays  as  little  attention  to  setting  it  up  or 
lining  the  machinery  properly  as  he  would  in  the  case  of  a  thrashing 
engine  or  a  steam  plow.  The  usual  procedure  is  to  clear  off  a  level 
space  of  ground,  set  down  the  engine  and  boiler  and  block  them  up 
a  little,  adjust  the  belting,  get  up  steam,  and  start  the  saw.  The 
moving  and  setting  up  is  not  taken  seriously.  .  Regardless  of  the 
length  of  time  a  portable  mill  is  to  remain  on  the  same  site,  the 
engine  bed  should  be  solid,  the  belting  properly  adjusted,  the  engine, 
sawmill,  and  carriage  properly  lined  up  and  housed  and  all  working 
parts  oiled  and  the  shafting  in  line  and  all  parts  in  good  working 
order.  Otherwise  it  is  impossible  to  manufacture  good  lumber. 

In  general,  the  life  of  a  portable  mill  may  be  placed  at  from  12 
to  15  years.  One  hundred  and  fifty  days  is  the  maximum  time  it  is 
in  active  operation  each  year,  so  that,  if  not  properly  cared  for,  a 
portable  mill  may  be  said  to  "  rust  out "  faster  than  it  wears  out. 

REGULAR  EQUIPMENT. 

CLASS   A. 

Following  are  the  various  parts  and  equipment  of  a  class  A  mill 
complete  and  their  cost  in  1916.  Since  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  war,  prices  have  fluctuated  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
make  it  impractical  to  give  those  likely  to  be  in  effect  when  this 
bulletin  is  issued.  It  has  been  thought  best,  therefore,  to  give  1916 
prices  throughout  as  a  basis  for  estimates. 

Sawmill  (husk  and  carriage)—— $254.00 

Sawdust  conveyors,  25-foot . 35.  00 

48-inch  chisel-tooth  circular  saw,  8  gauge 62.00 

60-inch  solid-tooth  circular  saw,  7  gauge 82.  00 

Engine  and  boiler,  15  horsepower 776.  00 

Tony  edger 145.  00 

Trimmer 280.  00 

Shingle  machine 160.  00 

Lath  mill  and  bolter. 200.  00 

Shingle  buncher  and  packer 10.  00 

Axes,  cant  hooks,  shovels,  wheelbarrows,  etc 20.  00 

Chisel  tool  files,  dozen - 5.00 


Total  _.  — 2,  029.  00 

Discount  20  per  cent 405.  80 

1,  623.  20 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIft  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  13 

The  equipment  of  the  sawmill  usually  consists  of— 

Husk  frame,  7  by  3  feet,  built  of  3£  by  7£  inch  timbers. 

Variable-friction  feed. 

Steel  mandrel,  2£  inches  by  4  feet  4  inches. 

Board  roll  and  spreader  wheel  and  saw  guide. 

Carriage  16  feet  long  and  26  inches  wide,  of  3£  by  5^  inch  timber. 

Feed  rack,  22  feet  long. 

Four  trucks  with  6-inch  wheels  and  1^-inch  steel  axles. 

40  feet  of  V  and  flat  rolled  steel  track. 

Two  head  blocks,  opening  34  inches,  with  duplex  dogs. 

Ideal  set  works  with  quick  receder. 

14-inch  polished-steel  set  shaft. 

There  is  also  furnished  a  mandrel  pulley  up  to  24  inches  diameter, 
belt  tightener,  foundation  bolts,  cant  hook,  oil  can,  and  wrenches 
for  rack  and  pinion-carriage  drive.  Also  trackway  timbers  bolted 
together  with  steel  track  attached. 

The  price  of  a  sawmill  *so  equipped,  as  shown  in  the  preceding 
cost  statement,  is  $254  f.  o.  b.  Chicago.  The  manufacturers  allow 
15  per  cent  discount  on  time,  and  20  per  cent  for  cash.  The  total 
shipping  weight  is  2,550  pounds.  Way  timbers  are  450  pounds  extra. 

Extra  equipment: 

Manila-rope  drive  with  sheaves,  add $10.  00 

Wire-cable  drive,  add 25.  00 

For  each  additional  foot  of  carriage,  add 3.  50 

For  each  additional  foot  of  set  shaft,  add .  60 

Trackway  timbers,  if  not  wanted,  deduct 16.  00 

Belt  tightener,  if  not  wanted,  deduct 13. 00 

A  top-saw  attachment  is  too  heavy  for  this  type  of  mill.  All 
mandrels  are  made  for  saws  with  2-inch  center  hole  and  two  f -inch 
pinholes  on  3-inch  circle,  and  are  adapted  to  any  power  from  6  to 
15  horsepower.  This  outfit  can  cut  2,000  feet  per  day  with  a  6-horse- 
power  engine,  or  from  7,000  to  8,000  feet  per  day  with  a  15-horse- 
power  engine.  It  will  carry  a  saw  up  to  52  inches  and  logs  up  to 
36  inches  diameter. 

CLASS   B. 

The  class  B  mill  is  heavier  and  of  larger  capacity  than  the  class 
A  mill,  and  has  an  independent  rack  beam  near  the  center  of  the 
carriage.  It  is  adapted  to  engines  of  from  15  to  40  horsepower,  and 
will  cut  from  10,000  to  20,000  feet  per  day.  Saws  up  to  60  inches 
may  be  used.  The  headblocks  will  open  to  receive  a  log  as  large 
as  54  inches  in  diameter.  The  parts  and  equipment  are — 

Sawmill $454 

Sawdust    conveyors 35 

48-inch  inserted-tooth  circular  saw,  8  gauge 62 

60-inch  solid-tooth  circular  saw,  7  gauge „ 82 


14  BULLETIN    'TIS,   U.    S.    DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Engine  and  boiler,  25  horsepower —  $1,  058 

Pony  edger. i 145 

Trimmer .. : 280 

Planer 169 

Slash  saw 60 

Shingle  machine 160 

Lath  mill  and  bolter ; 200 

Shingle  buncher   and  packer 10 

Tools,  axes,  cant  hooks,  shovels,  etc 20 

Inserted-tooth  files,  per  dozen 6 


Total _  2,741 

Discount  20  per  cent 548 


2,193 
The  equipment  of  the  sawmill  consists  of— 

Husk  frame  8  feet  6  inches  by  4  feet  built  of  4£  by  11£  inch  timbers. 
Variable-friction  feed. 

Steel  mandrel  2l§  inches  by  5  feet  6  inches  long. 
Mandrel  pulley  24  by  12  inches. 
Board  roll,  spreader  wheel,  and  saw  guide. 
Carriage  24  feet  long,  40  inches  wide,  timbers  5£  by  5J  inches. 
Feed  rack  32  feet  long. 

Six  trucks  with  10-inch  wheels  and  Hi -inch  steel  axles. 
Fifty-six  feet  of  V  and  flat  rolled  steel  track. 
Two  head  blocks  opening  48  inches  with  Grant  duplex  dogs. 
Twenty  feet  polished-steel  set  shaft. 

Trackway  timbers  framed  and  bolted  together  in  sections  with  steel  track 
attached,  belt  tightener,  foundation  bolts,  cant  hook,  oil  can,  and  wrenches. 
Rack-and-pinion  carriage  drive. 
Saw  not  included.    Weight  5,250  pounds. 

The  extras  are — 

Manila-rope  drive  with  sheaves,  add $10 

Wire-cable  drive  with  carriage,  add 36 

Carriage,  each  additional  foot,  add 6 

Set  shaft,  each  additional  foot,  add 1 

Top  saw  attachment,  add 80 

Trackway  timbers,  if  not  wanted,  deduct 20 

Belt  tightener,  if  not  wanted,  deduct - 14 

Sawdust  Conveyor  fixtures  (weight,  142  pounds). 

Top  mandrel  is  lit  inches  diameter  and  made  for  standard  saws  with  2-inch 
hole  and  f-inch  pin  holes  on  3-inch  circle.    Weight,  1,075  pounds. 

The  average  cost  of  setting  up  the  mill  is — 

Mill  (with  machinery  on  the  ground) $300 

Housing i 250 

Boarding  and  sleeping  camps _• 200 

Total—  750 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  15 

AUXILIARY   EQUIPMENT. 

EDGERS. 

A  33-inch  pony  gang  edger  with  a  capacity  of  from  5,000  to  11,000 
feet  per  day  has  two  saws  with  single-pressure  roll,  and  cost  in 
1916— 

With    solid-tooth    saws .$145 

With  inserted-tooth  sa\ys 175 

A  discount  of  40  per  cent  is  allowed  from  these  prices.  Specifica- 
tions for  edgers  of  this  size  are — 

Floor  space,  18  feet  6  inches  by  48  inches. 

Width  inside,  33  inches. 

Guide  adjustment,  4  inches. 

Mandrel  pulley,  diameter,  111  inches. 

Mandrel  pulley,  dimensions,  8  by  8  inches. 

Saws,  diameter,  14  inches.. 

Speed,  revolutions  per  minute,  up  to  2,000. 

Feed  belt,  8  feet  long,  4  inches  wide. 

Maximum    opening   between   sawrs :    Two-saw   edger,   24    inches ;    three-saw 

edger,  20  inches. , 
Weight :  Single  roll,  1,300  pounds ;  double  roll,  1,400  pounds. 

PLANEE. 

Planers  are  built  in  two  sizes,  to  surface  up  to  16  inches  and 

20  inches  wide  and  from  J  inch  to  6  inches  thick,  writh  or  without 

countershaft,  as  ordered.    No  belting  is  furnished.    Feed  belts  require 

13J  feet  of  IJ-inch  belting. 

One  pair  planer  knives,  weight  745  pounds : 

16-inch  machine  with  countershaft $152 

20-inch  machine  with  countershaft 169 

Pony  planer,  wyeight  1,700  pounds : 

20-inch . 275 

24-inch 325 

Planer  and  matcher 360 

Prices  are  subject  to  discount  of  20  per  cent,  Chicago. 

SAWDUST  CONVEYORS. 

Sawdust  conveyors  are  labor-saving  devices  that  constitute  a  good 
investment.  The  standard  25-foot  conveyors  consist  of  the  necessary 
sprocket  wheels,  bevel  gears,  sprocket  and  gear  shafts,  boxes,  collars, 
50  feet  of  carrier  chain  with  conveyor  attachments,  and  10  feet  of 
drive  chain. 

Price  of  25-foot  conveyors  as  described $35.00 

Price  per  foot  extension $0.45 

Longest  run  recommended feet 60 

Approximate  weight __pounds__        150 


16  BULLETIN   718,  U.   S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


TWO-SAW   TKIMMER. 

No.  1  machine,  for  boards  from  6  to  16  feet,  weight  2,650  pounds $280 

No.  2  machine,  for  boards  from  6  to  18  feet,  weight  2,750  pounds 300 

No.  3  machine,  for  boards  from  8  to  20  feet,  weight  2,850  pounds 320 

No.  4  machine,  for  boards  from  8  to  24  feet,  weight  3,110  pounds 340 

CUT-OFF   SAW. 

Timbers  in  main  frame  3^  by  31  inches. 
Timbers  in  table  frame  2  by  4  inches. 
Mandrel  (steel)  liV  inches  for  saw  with  1J  inch  hole. 
Mandrel  pulley  4  by  4  inches. 

Size  of  saw,  20  inches.     (Any  size  can  be  used  from  18  to  24  inches.) 
Floor  space  4  by  10  feet. 

Shipping  weight,  430  pounds.     Price  f.  o.  b.  Chicago,  $70.     Iron  parts 
only,  no  saw.     Discount  22  per  cent. 

LATH   MILL  AND  BOLTER. 

Frame,  8  feet  long,  37  inches  wide,  and  27  inches  high. 
Lath,  saw,  10  inches;  bolter  saws,  22  inches. 
Driving  pulley  on  each  mandrel,  8  by  8  inches. 
Speed  of  lath  saws,  2,700 ;  bolter,  1,400. 
Weight  of  combined  machine,  1,050  pounds. 

Complete  with  3  lath  saws  and  bolting  saw,  $200.     Discount  22  per  cent, 
f.  o.  b.  Chicago. 

GANG  LATH    MACHINE. 

3  saws $130 

4  saws 134 

5  saws 138 

6  saws 142 

20  per  cent  discount  f.  o.  b.  Chicago. 

Frame,  37  inches  long,  37  inches  wide,  and  27  inches  high. 

Lath  saws,  10  inches. 

Driving  pulley  on  mandrel,  8  by  8  inches. 

Speed  of  saws,  2,700  r.  p.  m. 

Weight,  675  pounds,  net. 

SHINGLE   MACHINE. 

Cuts  16  to  18  inch  shingles  with  36-inch  saw,  $160;  20  per  cent  discount, 
f.  o.  b.  Chicago. 

SHINGLE   BUNCHER  OR   PACKER. 

Size  of  bunch,  20  inches  wide,  30  inches  long. 
Price,  $10.     Weight,  80  pounds. 
Discount,  20  per  cent  f.  o.  b.  Chicago. 

ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

TYPES   AND   CAPACITIES. 

The  usual  specifications  for  a  15 -horsepower  engine  and  boiler 
suitable  for  a  class  A  mill  are — 

Size  of  cylinder,  8  by  10  inches. 
Revolutions  per  minute,  100. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS.   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,,   ETC. 


17 


Diameter  of  pulley,  44  inches. 
Face  of  pulley,  10  by  101  inches. 
Diameter  of  boiler,  32  inches. 
Length  of  furnace,  44  inches. 
Height  of  furnace,  33  inches. 
Width  of  furnace,  26  inches. 
Number  of  3-inch  tubes,  26. 
Length  of  tubes,  78  inches. 
Shipping  weight,  7,300  pounds. 

The  price  is  $776.  The  following  are  furnished  as  regular  equip- 
ment: Oil  cups,  sight-feed  lubricator,  steam  gauge,  water  gauge, 
whistle,  gauge  cocks,  throttle,  blow-off  check,  stop  and  safety  valves, 
smoke  stack,  grates,  governor,  belt  pulleys,  pet  cocks  and  wrenches, 
stack  and  guy  wires,  steam  and  exhaust  connections  and  injectors. 

The  center  crank  horizontal  engine  mounted  on  a  water  front  open 
bottom  locomotive  boiler  is  suitable  for  class  B  mills.  The  engine  is 
firmly  bolted  to  brackets  securely  fastened  to  the  shell  of  the  boiler. 
It  can  also  be  detached  and  used  separately. 

The  fittings  •  and  fixtures  comprise  grates,  water  column,  water 
gauge,  gauge  cocks,  steam  gauge,  safety  valve,  check  and  stop  valves, 
whistle  blow-off  valve,  stock  and  guy  rods,  injector  attached,  fly- 
wheel pulley,  oil  cups,  sight-feed  lubricator,  throttle  valve  and  nip- 
ples, automatic  governor  and  belt,  pipe  connection  between  boiler 
and  engine,  and  exhaust  pipe;  pump  and  heater  instead  of  injector 
and  spark  arrester  extra. 

The  usual  specifications  for  a  25  or  30  horsepower  engine  attached 
to  locomotive  boiler,  suitable  for  class  B  mills,  are — 


• 

25  horse-       30  horse- 
power,         power. 

Size  of  cylinder 

inches 

10  by  12          10  by  12 

Revolutions  per  minute 

160                   190 

Diameter  of  pulley 

.inches.. 

24  and  52        24  and  52 

Face  of  pullevs 

do 

12  and  12J      12  and  12i 

Diameter  of  boiler  .  . 

do.... 

36                     36 

L/en^th  of  furnace 

do 

52                     52 

Height  of  furnace  ... 

,  do.... 

38                     40 

Width  of  furnace  .  . 

.do..  . 

30                     30 

Number  of  3-inch  tul  ;es 

34                     34 

Length  of  tubes  

inches.. 

96                    120 

Diameter  of  smokestack 

do 

16                      16 

Length  of  smokestack  

feet.. 

25                     25 

Size  of  steam  pipe 

inches  . 

Size  of  exhaust  pine 

do 

3                      3 

Diameter  of  shaft  '.  

do  

3?                    31 

The  water-front,  open-bottom  boiler  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the 
best  types.  With  the  open  bottom  there  is  no  dead  water  space  below 
the  grate  surface,  such  as  exists  in  the  water-bottom  boilers,  to  fill 
with  mud  and  sediment.  The  open  bottom  permits  the  free  discharge 
and  easy  removal  of  ashes,  thus  providing  free  draft,  an  important 
consideration  in  the  case  of  the  poorer  grades  of  fuel  such  as  are 
63262°— 18— Bull.  718 3 


18 


BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


used  in  mountain  mills.  The  fittings  and  fixtures  comprise  grates, 
water  column  attached  with  gauge  cocks,  water  gauge,  steam  gauge, 
safety  valve,  check  valve,  stop  cock,  whistle,  blow-off  valve,  stack  and 
guy  rods  (four  times  the  length  of  the  stack)  ;  injector  and  spark 
arrester  extra. 

The  usual  specifications  for  a  25  or  30  horsepower  boiler  are — 


25  horse- 
power. 

30  horse- 
power. 

Diameter  of  boiler 

inches 

36 

36 

Length  of  fire  box  

do 

52* 

52 

Height  of  fire  box 

do 

38 

40 

Width  of  fire  box  

do  

30 

30 

Number  of  3-inch  tubes  

34 

34 

Length  of  tubes 

inches 

96 

120 

Thickness  of  shell 

do 

i 

i 

Thickness  of  furnace  plates 

do 

ft 

A 

Thickness  of  tube  sheets  and  heads  

do.... 

1 

1 

Size  of  dome  «  

do 

20  by  24 

20  bv  24 

Diameter  of  stack 

do 

16 

16 

Length  of  stack    

feet 

25 

25 

Number  of  steel  in  stack 

16- 

16 

Weight  of  bare  boiler  on  skids 

'                        pounds 

5  300 

5  SOO 

Weight,  with  fixtures  attached  

do.. 

6  300 

6,  900 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  component  parts  of  a  25  and  35 
horsepower  center-crank  horizontal  engine  and  the  approximate  cost 
of  replacing  each  part : 


25  horse- 
power. 

35  horse- 
power. 

Size  of  cylinder        .                                                                                       iiches 

10  by  12 

10  by  13 

Bed  frame 

$114.00 

$114  fO 

Connecting  rod,  complete  .                       . 

58.  20 

64.40 

Crank  shaft  ,  complete  ... 

96.00 

116.00 

Crank  pin,  brass  

13.00 

14.00 

Crosshead-pin,  brass  .             * 

7.50 

7.50 

Crnsshead,  complete 

26.52 

26.52 

Cylinder  head,  plain 

13  20 

15  60 

Cylinder  head  ,  with  gland  .  . 

19.80 

24.00 

Cylinder,  complete 

69.60 

78.00 

E°ccentric  rod  * 

5  40 

6.12 

Eccentric  rod  head  

7.68 

7.68 

Eccentric  and  strap  .  .  . 

12.00 

13.68 

Flywheel 

46  80 

46.80 

Governor  pulley 

6  12 

6  CO 

Piston  ring,  each 

2.40 

2.70 

Piston  ring  with  rod  fitted 

15  72 

18.24 

Piston-rod  gland 

3  48 

3  48 

Pulley  

13.90 

13.90 

Steam-chest  nover 

8.34 

8.34 

Valve  

3.72 

3.84 

Valve  stem  

6.54 

6.72 

Valve-stem  gland 

4.86 

4.86 

Valve-stain  bar 

7  26 

7.  23 

CARE    OF    BOILER. 


The  first  duty  of  an  engineer  when  he  enters  his  boiler  room  in 
the  morning  is  to  ascertain  how  many  gauges  of  water  there  are  in 
the  boiler.  Never  unbank  or  replenish  the  fires  until  this  is  done. 
If  the  water  is  low,  cover  the  fires  with  ashes  or  fresh  coal  and  close 
the  drafts  and  ash-pit  doors.  Do  not  turn  on  the  feed  or  tamper 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR   EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  19 

with  or  open  the  safety  valve.  Let  the  steam  outlets  remain  as  they 
are.  In  really  dangerous  cases  draw  the  fires. 

In  cases  of  foaming,  close  the  throttle  and  keep  it  closed  long 
enough  to  show  the  true  level  of  the  water.  If  the  level  is  suffi- 
ciently high,  feeding  and  blowing  will  suffice  to  correct  the  evil. 
In  cases  of  violent  foaming  caused  by  dirty  water  or  a  change  from 
salt  to  fresh  water,  or  vice  versa,  check  the  drafts  and  bank  the 
fires  in  addition.  If  leaks  start  in  the  boiler,  repair  them  at  once. 

To  blow  off,  clean  the  furnace  and  bridge  of  all  ashes  and  debris. 
Allow  the  fire  box  or  brickwork,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  cool  down 
for  an  hour  or  two  before  opening  the  blow-off.  The  pressure  should 
not  exceed  20  pounds  when  a  boiler  is  blown  out.  Blow  out  at  least 
once  or  twice  in  two  weeks.  In  case  the  feed  becomes  muddy,  blow 
out  some  every  day.  When  surface  blow  cocks  are  used  they  should 
often  be  opened  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time.  After  blowing  down, 
allow  the  boilers  to  become  cool  before  filling  up  again.  Cold  water 
should  never  be  pumped  into  a  hot  boiler;  it  will  cause  sudden  con- 
traction in  the  plate.  In  tubular  boilers  the  handholes  should  often 
be  opened  and  all  dirt  and  sediment  removed.  When  boilers  are  fed 
in  front  and  blown  off  through  the  same  pipe  the  mud  and  sediment 
in  the  rear  end  should  be  cleaned  out.  Raise  the  safety  valves  cau- 
tiously and  frequently;  otherwise  they  are  likely  to  become  fast  in 
their  seats  and  useless. 

Should  the  gauge  at  any  time  indicate  the  limit  of  pressure  allowed, 
see  that  the  safety  valves  are  blowing  off.  Keep  the  gauge  cocks 
clear  and  in  constant  use.  Glass  gauges  are  not  reliable.  In  pre- 
paring to  get  up  steam  after  the  boiler  has  been  open  or  out  of  serv- 
ice, great  care  should  be  taken  in  making  the  manhole  and  handhole 
joints.  The  safety  valve  should  then  be  blocked  open,  and  the  neces- 
cary  supply  of  water  run  or  pumped  into  the  boilers.  In  tubular 
and  locomotive  boilers  this  should  be  until  the  water  shows  at  second 
gauge;  in  vertical  tubulars  a  higher  level  is  advisable  as  a  protec- 
tion to  the  top  end  of  the  tubes.  After  this  is  done  fuel  may  be 
placed  on  the  grate,  dampers  opened,  and  fires  started.  If  the 
chimney  or  stack  is  cold  and  does  not  draw  properly,  burn  some  oily 
waste  or  light  chips  at  the  base.  When  steam  issues  from  the  safety 
valve,  lower  the  valve  carefully  to  its  seat,  and  note  pressure  and 
behavior  of  steam  gauge.  Under  all  circumstances  keep  the  gauges, 
cocks,  etc.,  clean  and  in  good  order  and  things  generally  in  and  about 
the  engine  and  boiler  in  a  neat  condition.  When  a  blister  appears  on 
the  boiler  there  must  be  no  delay  in  having  it  carefully  examined 
and  trimmed  or  patched.  Particular  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
sheets  and  parts  of  the  boiler  exposed  to  the  fire  perfectly  clean,  and 
all  tubes,  flues,  and  connections  well  swept.  This  is  particularly 
necessary  where  wood  is  used  for  fuel. 


20  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  extent  of  the  heating  surface  of  a  boiler  depends  on  the  length 
and  diameter  of  the  shell  and  the  number  and  size  of  the  flues.  It 
is  customary  in  calculating  the  heating  surface  of  the  shell  to  con- 
sider that  two-thirds  of  it  and  the  entire  surface  of  the  flues  is  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  heat. 

STEAM  BOILER  WATER. 

A  steam  boiler  needs  good  water  as  much  as  it  needs  good  fuel.  All 
water  used  in  boilers  contains  more  or  less  impurities  and  acid.  Im- 
purities which  cause  trouble  include  soluble  salts  of  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium, bicarbonates  of  alkaline  earths,  and  sulphate  of  lime.  Water 
containing  more  than  0.005  per  cent  of  free  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid 
is  likely  to  cause  serious  corrosion,  and  more  than  one-tenth  of  1  per 
cent  of  acid  will  cause  scale.  Hard  water  invariably  forms  scale,  and 
comparatively  soft  water  may  also  do  so  if  the  boiler  is  used  too  long 
without  being  emptied.  Foaming  is  caused  chiefly  by  an  excess  of 
alkaline  salts,  which  causes  the  water  to  form  suds  as  if  soap  had 
been  placed  in  it. 

Scale  not  only  decreases  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  but  also  causes 
deterioration ;  for,  when  it  is  sufficiently  thick  the  conducting  power 
of  the  boiler  is  reduced,  and  the  tubes  and  plates  become  overheated 
and  crack  or.  burst.  Again,  the  scale  may  keep  the  water  from  sec- 
tions of  the  heated  plates  for  some  time,  and  then  give  way,  causing 
large  volumes  of  steam  to  be  suddenly  generated,  possibly  resulting 
in  an  explosion.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  -J  of  an  inch  of  scale 
in  boilers  causes  a  loss  in  heat  transmission  of  from  10  to  12  per 
cent,  and  this  loss  of  heat  increases  with  the  thickness  of  the  scale. 
A  porous  scale  retards  the  heat  transmission  more  than  a  solid  scale. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  different  kinds  of  scale  may  be  found  in 
the  same  boiler,  owing  to  the  different  temperatures  of  the  sheet  in 
different  parts  and  to  the  circulation  of  the  water.  The  scale  on  the 
tubes  is  also  different  from  that  on  the  sheets,  owing  to  the  same 
causes. 

Methods  for  the  purification  of  feed  water  consist  of  the  use  of 
feed- water  heaters,  scum  catchers,  and  blow-off  valves,  or  chemicals 
placed  in  the  boiler  or  in  the  water  before  it  reaches  the  boiler.  Puri- 
fying chemicals  placed  in  the  boiler  are  soda  ash,  caustic  soda,  phos- 
phate of  soda,  tannin  compounds,  fluoride  of  soda,  and  aluminate  of 
soda.  As  a  rule,  the  expense  of  purifying  feed  water  with  chemicals 
makes  it  prohibitive  for  small  mills.  The  use  of  feed-water  heaters, 
scum  catchers,  and  blow-off  valves,  however,  is  strongly  recommended. 

To  prevent  the  adherence  of  scale  to  the  boiler  shell,  many  sub- 
stances have  been  used,  such  as  potatoes,  kerosene,  and  other  remedies, 
organic  and  mineral.  Of  the  boiler  compounds  found  on  the  market 
none  have  given  more  general  satisfaction  than  those  which  have 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  21 

and  some  form  of  tannic  acid  as  their  base.  Tannic  acid  has  a  slight 
action  on  the  iron  of  the  boiler  and  is  reasonably  efficient  in  prevent- 
ing scale  from  sticking. 

To  prevent  scale,  or  at  least  to  diminish  the  injury  it  does  to 
boilers,  the  feed  water  should  be  heated  by  live  steam  under  boiler 
pressure  in  a  separate  vessel  before  going  to  the  boiler.  By  allowing 
L  the  water  to  settle  for  some  time,  sediment,  mud,  and  dirt  will  be  got 
rid  of.  Oil  from  the  engine  cylinder  is  particularly  injurious  to 
boilers,  and,  when  noticed  in  the  condensed  steam,  should  be  carefully 
removed. 

STEAM   PUMPS. 

If  water  can  not  be  obtained  under  sufficient  pressure  to  cause  it  to 
flow  into  the  intake  by  gravity,  some  sort  of  pump  is  necessary. 
Usually  the  pump  runs  by  steam.  If  the  pump  runs  badly,  make  sure 
the  water  valves  and  water  pipes  are  all  right  before  examining  the 
steam  end.  When  the  pump  is  not  in  use  in  cold  weather  open  all 
the  cocks  and  drain  plugs  to  prevent  freezing.  Always  see  that  the 
pump  has  a  full  and  steady  supply  of  water  to  work  on.  Do  not  take 
the  pump  apart  to  see  what  is  inside  as  long  as  it  does  its  work  well. 
Set  a  pump  on  a  level  solid  foundation  so  as  to  avoid  undue  strain  on 
the  pipes  and  resulting  leaky  joints.  Long  pipes  should  be  larger 
than  short  ones,  to  allow  for  increased  friction.  All  pipes  should 
be  as  short  and  straight  as  possible..  A  foot  valve  and  strainer 
should  be  attached  to  the  suction  pipe. 

Use  few  elbows,  tees,  and  valves,  substituting  full  round  bends  for 
elbows,  and  wyes  for  tees ;  sharp  bends  greatly  increase  the  friction. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  guard  against  leaks  in  the  suction  pipe,  as  a 
very  small  leak  will  supply  the  pump  with  air  to  its  full  capacity,  and 
little  or  no  water  will  be  obtained.  A  suction  air  chamber  made  of 
a  short  nipple,  a  T,  a  piece  of  pipe  smaller  in  diameter  than  the 
suction  pipe  and  from  2  to  3  feet  long,  and  a  cap,  screwed  upright 
into  the  suction  pipe  close  to  the  pump  are  always  useful,  and  when 
the  suction  pipe  is  long,  in  high  lifts,  or  when  the  pump  is  running 
at  high  speed,  it  is  a  positive  necessity.  Its  use  insures  a  steady 
and  uniform  flow  of  water  through  this  suction  pipe  and  prevents 
"  pounding  "  or  "  water  hammering." 

Use  good  cylinder  oil,  and  oil  the  steam  end  just  before  stopping 
the  pump.  Keep  the  stuffing  boxes  full  of  good  packing,  well  oiledr 
and  just  tight  enough  to  prevent  leakage  without  excessive  friction. 

WATER  POWER. 

As  a  general  thing,  water  power  is  not  practicable  for  a  portable 
mill.  It  may  be  found  in  one  location,  but  not  in  the  next.  It  is 
cheaper  than  steam,  but  the  source  of  power  is  neither  uniform  nor 


22  BULLETIN   718,  U.   S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

continuous;  it  is  not  as  capable  of  control  as  is  steam,  and  in  most 
cases  it  gives  low  speed  and  low  capacity.  Decryptions  of  various 
types  of  water  wheels  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

BELTING, 

Belts  transmit  power  from  the  engine  to  the  saw.  The  heavier  the 
belt  the  more  power  it  transmits.  Belt  tighteners  are  required  when 
a  belt  itself  is  not  heavy  or  long  enough  to  cause  sufficient  sag.  The 
sag  should  always  be  on  top,  in  order  to  increase  the  arc  of  contact 
with  the  pulley.  Belts  are  made  either  of  leather,  rubber,  or 
fabric.  Leather  belts  are  sold  either  single  or  double.  The  trans- 
mitting power  of  a  single  belt  is  only  70  per  cent  of  that  of  a  double 
belt.  Rubber  belts  stand  moisture  better  than  leather  and  are  cut 
from  -J  to  J  inch  shorter  per  foot  than  the  circuit  on  which  they  run. 
They  are  run  with  the  seam  side  out,  while  leather  belts  are  run  with 
the  grain  side  in.  Rubber  belting  is  sold  as  2,  4,  6,  and  8  ply,  the 
4  ply  being  equal  to  single  leather  belting,  the  6  ply  to  light  double 
leather  belting,  and  the  8  ply  to  heavy  double  leather  belting.  Small 
mills  are  usually  equipped  with  either  fabric  or  rubber  belting. 

When  ordering  belting  of  any  kind  it  is  necessary  to-  specify 
(1)  diameter  of  driving  pulley,  (2)  its  revolutions  per  minute, 
(3)  diameter  of  driven  pulley,  (4)  distance  of  pulley  centers, 
(5)  horsepower  to  be  transmitted,  and  (6)  width  of  pulley  face. 

Leather  belting  is  spiked  or  joined  either  by  studs  or  by  belt 
cement.  Next  best  to  the  cemented  joint  in  a  leather  belt  is  that 
made  with  a  rawhide  or  other  lace.  But  this  joint  in  a  leather  or  any 
kind  of  belt  must  be  made  properly.  Large  lacing  holes  and  a  big 
bunch  of  lace  may  be  almost  as  harmful  and  cause  as  much  "  jump  " 
in  the  belt  as  a  double  row  of  studs.  Where  leather  belting  is  ex- 
posed to  moisture  and  waterproof  cement  is  not  accessible,  lacing 
may  be  resorted  to ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  all  leather  belts  should  be 
cemented. 

In  lacing  a  fabric  belt  never  use  a  hollow,  punch,  because  it  cuts 
the  stitches  and  weakens  the  belt.  Use  a  pointed  awl.  Cut  the  ends 
of  the  belt  perfectly  true  with  a  try-square  and  punch  or  bore  two 
rows  of  holes  in  each  end.  The  holes  in  the  second  row  should  be 
punched  directly  back  of  the  holes  in  the  front  row.  The  holes  in  both 
ends  of  the  belt  should  also  be  directly  opposite.  No  hole  should  be 
less  than  one-half  inch  from  either  edge  or  end  of  the  belt.  The  holes 
should  be  spaced  three- fourths  inch  from  center  to  center.  When 
an  odd  number  of  holes  are  to  be  laced,  begin  with  the  center  hole ; 
and  when  an  even  number,  start  with  either  of  the  two  center  holes. 
The  straight  stitch  and  hinge  are  the  two  forms  of  lacing  in  most 
general  use.  Other  methods  of  splicing  fabric  and  rubber  belting 


SMALL  SAWMILLS,  THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  23 

are  also  used  in  emergencies.  Special  endless  belts  Avith  a  diagonal 
splice  are  supplied  by  some  manufacturers. 

A  belt  should  be  capable  of  transmitting  from  5  to  25  per  cent  more 
power  than  is  actually  needed,  the  excess  capacity  being  governed 
by  the  type  of  drive,  the  smaller  excess  for  heavy  main  drives,  and  the 
greatest  for  machine  belts.  Never  use  belts  the  full  width  of  the 
pulley  face,  as  a  slight  lack  of  alingment  may  cause  part  of  the  belt 
to  run  beyond  the  edge  of  the  pulley  and  perhaps  against  a  shifting 
finger  or  pulley  flange.  This  is  sure  to  result  in  loss  of  power  and 
perhaps  in  a  badly  damaged  belt.  On  the  other  hand,  a  belt  too 
narrow  necessitates  high  tension  to  transmit  the  required  power,  thus 
causing  excessive  journal  friction  and  the  early  destruction  of  the 
belt. 

Generally  speaking,  single  belts,  if  heavy  enough  to  carry  the  load, 
should  be  used  on  small  pulleys.  A  single  belt  should  never  be  wider 
than  1J  times  the  diameter  of  the  smallest  pulley.  Where  small 
diameter  pulleys  and  the  load  would  require  an  unusually  wide  single 
belt,  it  is  advisable  to  substitute  narrower  pulleys  and  a  narrow 
double  belt.  Thin  wide  belts  give  the  best  service;  working  verti- 
cally, a  thick  narrow  vertical  belt  will  not  grip  the  pulley  well. 
Double  belts  of  medium  or  heavy  weight  should  never  be  used  on 
pulleys  less  than  12  inches  in  diameter,  or,  even  better,  on  pulleys 
less  than  20  inches  in  diameter. 

Belts  too  heavy  for  the  load  weave  back  and  forth  on  the  pulleys. 
This  is  best  illustrated  by  a  belt  working  under  intermittent  loads, 
which  runs  straight  while  carrying  the  maximum  or  proper  load 
but  shows  a  tendency  to  weave  when  the  load  is  reduced. 

The  tightness  with  which  belts  are  adjusted  to  the  pulleys  is  of 
prime  importance.  If  they  are  put  on  too  tightly,  there  is  a  large 
unnecessary  loss  of  power  from  excessive  friction  at  the  bearings,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  overstrain  and  injury  to  the  belt  itself.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  belt  is  too  loose,  it  is  likely  to  flop  around  and  jump 
from  the  pulleys,  particularly  when  a  load  is  suddenly  thrown  on 
or  off.  The  slacker  a  belt  can  be  run  up  to  a  certain  point  while 
doing  its  work  satisfactorily,  the  greater  the  economy.  In  installing 
belting  and  taking  it  up,  it  should  be  remembered  that  certain  kinds 
of  belting  are  affected  by  weather  conditions,  lengthening  and 
shortening  according  to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air.  Instances 
have  been  known  where  the  babbitt  was  melted  out  of  the  boxes  and 
even  shafting  pulled  out  of  alignment  as  a  result  of  belting  being  put 
on  too  tight. 

Be  sure  to  note  carefully  whether  your  shafting  is  properly  in 
line.  More  belting  is  ruined  by  improperly  lined  shafting  and  pul- 
leys than  in  any  other  way.  The  belts  under  this  condition  are 


24  BULLETIN   718,  U.   S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

either  kept  on  the  pulleys  by  guides  or  rub  against  hangers  and  tear 
or  stretch  on  one  edge.  Belts  so  stretched  will  not  run  straight  and 
may  slip  the  pulleys  at  any  time.  Remember  that  because  your  shaft- 
ing was  once  in  line  it  does  not  follow  that  it  will  stay  so  indefinitely. 
It  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  connect  two  pulleys  by  a  band  in  such  a 
way  that  when  one  pulley  is  turned  the  other  will  go  round.  It  is 
not  at  all  a  simple  matter  properly  to  proportion  a  drive  and  select 
the  size  and  quality  of  belting  which  will  transmit  power  most  effec- 
tively and  economically. 

Shafts  should  not  be  located  too  close  together.  There  should 
be  distance  enough  between  them  to  allow  the  belt  to  recover  some- 
what from  the  strain  applied  on  the  tight  or  working  side.  This 
distance  depends  entirely  upon  the  size  of  the  belt  and  pulleys,  but 
should  be  sufficient  to  allow  some  slight  sag  to  the  slack  side  of  the 
belt.  Neither  should  the  shafts  be  too  far  apart,  for  in  such  cases 
the  weight  of  the  belts  draws  heavily  on  the  shafting  and  increases 
the  friction  load  in  the  bearings,  at  the  same  time  causing  the  belt 
to  swing  from  side  to  side  and  sometimes  to  run  off  the  pulleys. 
This  constant  swing  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  crooked  spots  in  the 
belt,  which  wear  out  rapidly. 

It  is  the  best  and  most  economical  practice  to  use  pulleys  of  large 
diameters,  thus  obtaining  a  high  belt  speed,  which  means  a  saving 
both  in  the  transmission  of  power  and  in  the  wear  and  tear  on  the 
equipment.  The  speed  of  the  belt  being  the  same,  pulleys  of  large 
diameters  effect  a  slightly  greater  transmission  of  power  than  do 
those  of  small  diameter.  The  speed  of  the  shafts  being  the  same, 
the  advantage  in  favor  of  large  pulleys  over  small  ones  is  in  pro- 
portion to  their  diameters.  Wooden  or  leather-covered  pulleys  have 
a  greater  transmitting  power  than  iron.  Cold-rolled  shafting  is 
said  to  have  30  per  cent  greater  strength  than  hot  rolled.  The  usual 
diameters  for  shafting  are  from  H  to  3^  inches.  The  proper  speed 
is  from  300  to  400  revolutions  per  minute,  and  its  transmitting  power 


is  given  as  —  KK—  —  H.  P.    D  is  diameter  of  shafting  in  inches,  R 

revolutions  per  minute. 

Shafts  that  are  to  be  connected  with  each  other  by  belts  should  be 
far  enough  apart  to  allow  a  gentle  sag  to  the  belt  when  in  motion. 
When  narrow  belts  are  to  be  run  over  small  pulleys,  15  feet  is  a  good 
average,  the  belt  having  a  sag  of  from  1  \  to  2  inches.  For  larger  belts 
working  on  larger  pulleys  the  distance  should  be  from  20  to  25  feet, 
with  a  sag  of  from  2-J  to  4  inches.  For  main  belts  working  on  very 
large  pulleys  the  distance  should  be  from  25  to  30  'feet,  with  a  sag 
of  4  or  5  inches.  If  the  distance  between  pullies  is  too  great  the  belt 
will  have  an  unsteady  flapping  motion  which  will  tend  to  destroy 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR   EQUIPMENT,   ETC. 


25 


both  belt  and  machinery.  Regardless  of  the  width  of  belt  or  diam- 
eter of  pulley,  the  adhesion  of  the  belt  to  the  pulley  is  the  same  in 
all  cases,  provided  the  arc  of  contact  and  aggregate  tension  or  weight 
are  the  same.  Thus,  other  things  being  equal,  a  belt  will  slip  just 
as  readily  on  a  pulley  4  feet  in  diameter  as  it  will  on  a  pulley  2  feet 
in  diameter.  To  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  power  from  belts  the 
pulleys  must  be  covered  with  leather.  This  will  allow  the  belts  to  run 
slack  and  will  increase  their  durability  by  25  per  cent. 


CIRCULAR  SAWS. 


KINDS    AND   COSTS. 


Circular  saws  are  either  of  the  solid-tooth  or  inserted- tooth  type. 
The  advantages  of  inserted-tooth  saws  over  solid-tooth  saws  are :  The 
bits  are  cheap  and  can  be  readily  set  in  position  with  the  special 
wrench ;  less  experience  is  required  in  dressing  the  saw ;  there  is  less 
filing  and  gumming ;  there  are  fewer  saw  repairs,  which  is  important 
in  a  backwoods  locality;  and  the  diameter  of  the  saw  remains  un- 
changed during  its  use.  The  disadvantages  are:  The  saw  kerf  is 
heavy;  the  teeth  are  larger  and  fewer  than  in  a  solid-tooth  saw; 
feed  is  comparatively  slow ;  and  the  cost  is  higher. 

For  big  logs  and  high  speed  a  double  circular  saw  must  be  used. 
The  two  saws  are  hung  to  revolve' in  opposite  directions,  so  that  the 
sawdust  from  the  top  saw  will  not  be  thrown  into  the  lower  one. 
The  advantages  of  a  top  saw  (double  mill)  are:  It  will  saw  bigger 
logs  than  a  single  mill;  it  will  make  a  truer  cut  and  saw  lumber 
more  evenly;  it  takes  faster  feed,  saws  more  lumber,  and  entails  less 
expense  for  saws  and  less  repairs.  The  top  saw  may  remain  inactive 
when  small  logs  are  being  cut,  to  avoid  using  up  power.  Inserted 
teeth  are  not  used  in  a  top-saw  rig. 

The  approximate  prices  of  solid-tooth  and  inserted-tooth  saws 
f .  o.  b.  Seattle,  in  1916,  were : 

Approximate  price  of  solid-tooth  and  inserted-tooth  saws. 


Size. 

Solid 
tooth. 

Inserted 
tooth. 

Size. 

Solid 
tooth. 

Inserted 
tooth. 

40-inch  

$23 

$44 

52-inch 

$52 

$81 

42-inch  .  . 

26 

49 

54-inch 

58 

91 

44-inch 

30 

53 

56-inch 

66 

99 

46-inch  

36 

57 

58-inch 

74 

110 

48-inch..     . 

41 

62 

60-inch 

83 

121 

50-inch   . 

47 

70 

62-inch 

94 

134 

The  amount  of  horsepower  required  for  a  circular  saw  is  equal  to 
approximately  one-third  of  the  saw's  diameter  in  inches.     In  large 
mills  each  horsepower  is  supposed  to  manufacture  1,000  feet  of  lum- 
ber per  day ;  in  small  mills  only  one-half  that  amount. 
63262°— 18— Bull.  718 4 


26  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

In  ordering  a  circular  saw  be  careful  to  give  the  following  speci- 
fications in  detail : 

1.  Diameter  of  the  saw  in  inches. 

2.  Right  or  left  hand  mill. 

3.  Gauge  of  saw  at  center  and  at  rim. 

4.  Number  of  teeth  in  saw. 

5.  Style  or  pattern  of.  tooth,  solid  or  inserted. 

6.  Diameter  of  mandrel  hole,   diameter  of  pinhole  and  distance,  center  to 
center  of  pinholes. 

7.  Number  of  revolutions  of  saw  per  minute,  while  in  cut. 

8.  Greatest  feed  in  inches  per  revolution  and  kind  of  feed. 

9.  Species  of  timber  to  be  sawed. 

10.  Spring  or  swage  set. 

11.  Horsepower  available  and  size  of  belt  pulley. 

12.  Engine  speed  and  size  of  mandrel  pulley. 

SIZE. 

The  size  of  the  saw  should  be  governed  by  the  size  of  the  logs  to 
be  cut,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  power  used.  The  diameter  of  the 
saw  should  be  approximately  one  and  a  half  times  the  diameter  of 
the  largest  log  to  be  cut.  For  instance,  a  36-inch  log  needs  a  54-inch 
saw,  a  40-inch  log  a  60-inch  saw.  The  width  of  the  widest  board 
which  a  single  circular  saw  can  cut  equals  the  radius  of  the  saw 
minus  3  inches;  that  is,  a  60-inch,  circular  saw  can  cut  a  board  or 
plank  27  inches  wide. 

HANGING    A    SAW. 

Set  the  saw  plumb  and  true.  Set  the  saw  guide  and  adjust  the 
guide  pins  clear  of  the  teeth  and  just  touching  the  plate.  This 
should  be  done  while  the  saw  is  in  motion,  care  being  taken  that  the 
pins  do  not  push  the  saw  to  one  side  or  rub  hard  enough  to  cause 
friction.  After  screwing  the  saw  up  between  the  collars  examine 
the  front  or  log  side  of  the  saw  to  make  sure  that  it  is  flat.  Never 
attempt  to  run  a  saw  that  is  dishing  on  the  log  side,  as  it  will  be 
sure  to  draw  toward  the  log  and  be  ruined.  It  does  not  follow  that 
because  one  saw  works  well  that  another  will  do  so  on  the  same 
mandrel,  or  that  two  saws  will  hang  alike  on  the  same  mandrel. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  saw  mandrel  should  be  perfectly 
level,  so  .that  the  saw  will  hang  exactly  plumb.  If  it  is  found  to  be 
rounding  on  the  log  side,  cut  a  ring  of  paper  about  half  an  inch 
wide  the  size  of  the  collar  on  the  outside,  oil  it,  and  stick  it  on  the 
face  of  the  tight  collar  around  the  outer  cage.  Then  cut  another 
ring  of  paper  the  same  width,  making  the  hole  the  same  size  as  the; 
hole  in  the  saw,  put  this  small  ring  between  the  loose  collar  and  the; 
saw,  and  screw  up  the  collar.  If  the  two,  rings  are  not  enough,  put 
in  more  until  the  saw  stands  straight  and  true.  If  the  saw  hangs 
dishing  on  the  log  side,  reverse  the  rings  of  paper ;  that  is,  put  the. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  27 

small  rings  between  the  saw  and  the  fast  collar  and  the  large  ring 
against  the  loose  collar.  If  the  saw  heats  in  the  center  when  the 
mandrel  runs  cool  in  the  boxes,  cool  it  off  and  give  it  a  little  more 
lead  into  the  log.  If  the  saw  heats  in  the  rim  and  not  in  the  center, 
cool  it  off  and  give  it  a  little  more  lead  out  of  the  log.  Circular 
saws,  revolving  as  they  do  at  high  speed,  have  a  tendency  to  stretch 
on  the  rim,  which  causes  them  to  cut  out  of  line,  dodge  knots,  run 
snaky,  and  become  hot  in  the  rim. 

HAMMERING    A    SAW BLOCKING. 

To  overcome  rim  expansion,  saws  are  loosened  in  the  body  by  ham- 
mering. This  operation  is  called  "blocking,"  and  the  effect  on  the 
saw  is  called  tension.  If  after  long  use  or  through  accident  a  saw 
will  not  run  true  and  requires  hammering,  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  bringing  it  back  to  proper  adjustment.  Hammering  should 
hardly  ever  be  done  by  anyone  except  an  expert.  However,  if  con- 
siderable care  is  exercised,  a  person  who  is  a  fair  mechanic  should 
attain  good  results  by  practice  and  observation. 

After  taking  the  saw  from  the  mandrel,  stand  it  upright  on  the 
floor  and  examine  it  carefully  on  both  sides  with  a  straight  edge  for 
any  inequalities  such  as  lumps.  Mark  these  lumps  with  chalk  on 
the  full  or  convex  side,  then  place  the  saw  on  a  block  of  wood  and 
hammer  lightly  on  the  high  side.  Don't  hammer  the  saw  on  an 
anvil,  for  that  will  change  its  tension. 

If  struck  too  heavily,  the  plate  will  be  dented  or  the  lumps  knocked 
through  to  the  other  side.  When  the  lumps  are  knocked  too  far  it 
is  practically  impossible  to  get  them  back  or  to  restore  the  equality 
of  the  plate.  Lumps  are  sometimes  round,  but  are  usually  oblong. 
To  remove  round  lumps,  use  a  round-faced  hammer,  which  leaves  an 
impression  one-half  inch  in  diameter.  To  remove  oblong  lumps,  use 
a  cross-faced  hammer.  The  blows  should  follow  the  direction  of 
the  lump.  Never  use  an  ordinary  carpenter's  hammer;  it  will  ruin 
the  plate.  Do  not  be  content  with  putting  the  straight  edge  on  once 
or  twice  and  hammering  a  little.  After  a  few  blocks,  apply  the 
straight  edge  again,  and  continue  alternatively  applying  the  straight 
edge  and  lightly  hammering  until  all  inequalities  are  removed 

The  saw  should  then  be  placed  on  an  anvil  (not  a  wooden  block) 
and  examined  for  tension.  Raise  one  side  so  that  the  center  of  the 
saw  just  clears  the  anvil  while  the  opposite  side  rests  on  the  bench 
or  wooden  board,  which  should  be  1  inch  below  the  surface  of  the 
anvil.  The  body  of  the  saw  should  be  loose  enough  to  drop  away 
from  a  straight  edge  placed  across  the  log  side  evenly  from  rim  to 
rim.  If  a  36-inch  straight  edge  is  used  on  a  48-inch  saw,  you  should 
be  able  to  see  light  between  the  straight  edge  and  the  center.  Always 
try  the  long  side  for  this  drop.  If  you  find  there  is  not  sufficient 


28  BULLETIN    718,   U.    S.    DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

tension,  the  plate  must  be  hammered  lightly  all  over  on  both  sides 
to  within  6  or  8  inches  of  the  center  and  to  within  2  inches  of  the 
bottom  of  the  sockets.  The  hammering  must  be  distributed  evenly 
with  a  round-faced  hammer.  When  adjusting  the  tension,  leave  the 
shanks  in  the  plate. 

When  hammering  a  saw  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  speed  at  which 
it  is  to  run.  No  saw  will  run  properly  unless  hammered  for  the 
correct  speed.  A  saw  when  running  must  be  perfectly  flat  on  the 
log  side,  although  some  sawyers  prefer  to  have  the  edge  lean  slightly 
towards  the  log  wrhen  the  saw  is  standing  still.  This  means  that  it  is 
dished  a  very  little  on  the  log  side.  If,  however,  any  such  dish  is 
allowed,  it  would,  of  course,  be  so  slight  that  it  could  not  be  distin- 
guished by  the  naked  eye  and  could  hardly  be  found  with  a  straight 
edge. 

A  saw  often  becomes  full  on  the  log  side.  By  this  is  meant  that 
the  rim  has  been  forced  away  from  the  log  so  as  to  cause  the  dish 
on  the  board  side.  If  there  are  no  uneven  spots  in  the  plate  other 
than  this  dish,  the  saw  can  easily  be  brought  back  by  lightly  ham- 
mering on  the  log  side. 

Always  make  sure  before  any  hammering  is  done  that  the  part 
of  the  saw  which  is  to  receive  the  blow  is  well  bedded  or  flat  on  the 
anvil.  In  a  perfect  saw  the  apex  or  point  of  the  V  of  the  socket  is 
central  with  the  plate.  If  it  is  not  central,  the  bit,  when  inserted, 
will  lean  to  one  side.  This  causes  the  saw  to  lead  into,  or  be  forced 
away  from  the  log,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  besides  dishing  the  saw, 
divides  the  strain  on  the  bit  and  shank  unevenly,  causing  them  to 
break. 

SAW    SPEED. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  as  to  proper  speed  of  saws. 
The  manufacturers  give  the  maximum  speed  at  which  their  saws  may 
be  operated  with  safety  on  the  basis  of  the  highest  power  the  saws 
are  calculated  to  withstand.  These  speeds  can  not  be  used  for  portable 
mills  because  of  insufficient  power.  They  are  given  by  saw  makers 
to  show  what  the  saw  will  stand  and  not  what  it  is  supposed  to  ac- 
complish in  practical  work  every  day.  While  speed  is  power,  it  is 
easy  to  consume  all  the  power  in  speed  without  doing  any  work.  A 
48-inch  saw  run  by  a  10-horsepower  engine  should  have  a  speed  of 
300  revolutions  per  minute,  or  to  give  the  best  results,  350  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  should  have  24  teeth.  The  proper  saw  speed  for 
portable  mills  running  with  20  horsepower  and  under  may  be  ob- 
tained by  multiplying  the  horsepower  by  360  and  dividing  the  prod- 
uct by  the  circumference  of  the  sawr. 

For  20  horsepower  the  teeth  should  be  5  inches  apart,  which  will 
give  30  teeth  to  a  48-inch  saw.  With  larger  power  the  teeth  should 
be  closer  together  until  they  reach  the  limit  of  3  inches  apart.  As 


SMALL  SAWMILLS,  THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC, 


the  power  be  increased  the  speed  of  the  saw  is  increased  correspond- 
ingly. 

Saws  for  cutting  hard  wood  or  frozen  timber  are  run  at  a  higher 
speed  than  those  cutting  soft  timber,  but  have  more  teeth. 

If  a  saw  is  run  at  a  faster  or  slower  rate  than  it  is  hammered  for, 
it  is  sure  to  Avork  improperly  and  give  trouble.  A  saw  hammered  to 
run  at  500  r.  p.  m.,  if  run  at  350  to  400  r.  p.  m.  in  the  cut,  will  be  loose 
in  the  center  and  tight  around  the  rim.  This  wrill  cause  it  to  run 
snaky  or  crooked  in  the  log,  heat  rapidly  in  the  center,  and  consume 
a  great  deal  of  power.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  saw  that  is  ham- 
mered for  slow  speed,  say  300  or  400  r.  p.  m.,  is  run  at  500  r.  p.  m., 
it  will  stretch  too  much  and  be  tight  in  the  center  and  loose  and 
wobbly  in  the  rim.  This  will  cause  it  to  heat  on  the  rim,  "  flutter," 
run  crooked  in  the  log,  and  consume  power  uselessly.  Improper 
speed  and  giving  the  sawT  too  much  lead  into  the  log  are  the  causes  of 
nearly  all  the  trouble  experienced  with  saws  in  portable  mills. 

The  following  table,  based  on* a  saw  48  inches  in  diameter,  may  be 
of  use  in  determining  proper  saw  speed. 


Horsepower. 

6 

8 

10 

12 

15 

20 

Distance  between  teeth  from  point  to  point                          inches 

7 
22 
300 

7 
22 
300 

6 
24 
300 

6 
24 
350 

5 
30 
400 

5 
30 

450 

Teeth  in  saw                                                                          number 

Speed,  of  saw                                                 revolutions  per  minute 

To  find  the  proper  speed  of  larger  or  smaller  saws,  multiply  the 
speed  given  for  a  48-inch  saw  by  48  and  divide  the  product  by  the  size 
of  the  saw  selected.  A  larger  saw  should  have  a  greater  number  of 
teeth  and  a  smaller  saw  a  lesser  number,  the  distance  apart  remaining 
the  same.  In  the  case  of  a  double  mill,  both  saws  should  have  the 
same  rim  speed. 

FILING. 

Solid-tooth  saws. — Do  not  file  all  the  teeth  from  the  same  side, 
especially  if  each  alternate  tooth  is  bent  for  the  set.  File  the  teeth 
that  are  bent  from  you  oh  one  side  and  leave  them  on  a  slight  bevel, 
with  the  outer  corners  a  little  the  longest,  and  then  reverse  the  saw 
and  treat  the  other  side  in  the  same  manner.  Never  file  any  saw 
to  sharp  or  acute  angles  at  the  throat  or  roots  of  the  teeth,  but  on 
circular  lines.  Any  saw  is  likely  to  crack  from  sharp  corners.  The 
filing  of  angles  or  square  corners  will  cancel  the  warranty  of  the  saw. 

Saw  teeth  wear  narrow  at  the  extreme  points;  consequently  they 
must  be  kept  spread  (swedged)  so  that  they  will  be  widest  at 
the  very  points.  The  teeth  should  be  kept  as  near  a  uniform  shape 
and  distance  apart  as  possible.  The  back  or  top  of  the  tooth  leads  or 


SO  BULLETIN  'TIS,  U.   S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

guides  the  saw  in  a  measure,  and  should  be  filed  square  across.  If 
a  saw  is  frozen,  always  thaw  it  out  before  attempting  to  set  the 
teeth. 

The  greatest  wear  on  the  saw  is  on  the  under  edges  of  the  teeth. 
File  nearly  to  an  edge,  but  not  quite,  leaving  a  short  bevel  of  one- 
thirty-second  of  an  inch  wide  on  the  underside  of  the  point.  But 
in  no  instance  file  to  a  fine  point  or  thin  wire  edge.  Do  nearly  all  the 
filing  on  the  underside  of  the  teeth  and  see  that  they  are  \vell  spread 
(swedged)  at  the  points.  File  square  across  and  have  them  pro- 
ject alike  on  both  sides  of  the  saw. 

On  crosscut  saws,  bevel  the  front  of  one  tooth  one  way  and  the  next 
tooth  the  opposite  way.  File  rip  saws  square  in  front;  use  a  light 
hammer  in  swedging,  from  three-fourths  to  1  pound,  holding  the 
swedge  so  that  the  teeth  will  spread  at  the  points.  Swedge  out  wide 
and  then  dress  down  to  the  required  width.  Most  cases  of  saws 
"  crumbling "  are  caused  by  the  use  of  too  delicate  a  swedge.  In 
such  cases  the  corners  of  the  tooth  *ire  not  strong  enough  to  stand 
the  cutting  strain. 

Be  sure  to  have  a  side  file  for  jointing  the  teeth  and  keeping  all 
the  points  the  same  length  on  each  side  of  the  saw. 

The  cost  of  changing  solid-tooth  saws  into  inserted-tooth  saws  is 
usually  $1.50  per  tooth  plus  one-half  the  list  price  of  a  solid-tooth 
saw  of  the  same  size. 

Inserted  teeth. — It  is  not  economical  to  spend  much  time  filing  in- 
serted teeth,  because  new  points  are  cheap  and  arc  quickly  inserted. 
It  should  never  be  necessary  to  swedge  the  bits.  Light  filing  on  the 
underside  is  the  only  thing  required  to  keep  them  sharp,  because  the 
cutting  point  tapers  gradually  and  allows  plenty  of  clearance,  even 
though  the  point  is  worn  almost  entirely  away.  Swedging  is  likely 
to  injure  the  shoulders  and  sockets,  unless  great  care  is  taken  in  the 
operation.  Use  a  light  1-pound  hammer  and  hold  the  swedge  so  that 
the  teeth  will  be  spread  at  the  point.  Have  a  cup  of  oil,  together 
with  the  teeth,  placed  conveniently  near  you  at  the  back  of  the  saw. 
Take  the  wrench  and  plajce  the  pins  in  the  holes  in  the  shank,  turning 
the  latter  so  that  the  hook  projects  sufficiently  to  receive  the  bit. 
Pick  up  a  tooth  with  the  other  hand  and  dip  the  grooved  segment 
into  the  oil,  then  place  it  in  position  and  hold  it  firmly  and  evenly 
writh  the  sides  of  the  blade,  and  at  the  same  time  press  the  wrench 
downward  until  the  shank  fits  into  its  place.  The  inserted  teeth 
are  exact  in  width  and  the  spread  uniformly  good.  If  extra  nice 
work  is  desired,  try  a  gauge  on  the  side  of  each  tooth.  If  any  are 
found  to  project  a  trifle  too  far,  reduce  them  with  a  side  file,  being 
careful  to  preserA'e  the  same  relief  of  the  corner.  No  flat  surface 
should  be  allowed  on  the  side  of  the  teeth,  which  must  be  relieved 
from  the  very  point. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  31 

A  properly  adjusted  set  of  inserted  teeth  should  be  used  until  worn 
out.  Sharpen  them  as  often  as  necessary  by  filing  on  their  underside 
with  an  inserted  tooth  file,  i.  e.,  a  mill  file  with  one  round  edge.  After 
being  sharpened  several  times  they  should  be  relieved  on  the  sides* 
Should  a  shank  become  straight  or  compressed,  because  of  the  saw 
being  run  on  iron,  so  that  it  will  not  hold  the  bit  firmly,  lay  it  on 
the  anvil  and  strike  it  with  a  hammer  on  the  inner  edge  until  it  is 
expanded  sufficiently  to  hold  the  bit.  Do  not  try  the  experiment  of 
bending  each  alternate  tooth  for  the  set.  If  there  is  any  difficulty  in 
removing  an  old  bit  for  the  purpose  of  inserting  a  new  one,  never 
hammer  the  wrench  or  the  bit,  but  place  a  blunt  cold  chisel  on  the 
heel  of  the  shank,  taking  care  it  does  not  touch  the  saw  plate,  and 
tap  lightly  with  a  hammer.  •  This  will  start  the  bit  and  shank  and 
enable  you  to  remove  them  easily  with  the  wrench.  It  is  important 
that  all  the  bits  should  be  of  equal  length.  In  order  to  insure  this, 
get  a  small  segment  or  section  of  an  old  plate  that  can  be  easily  held 
in  a  vise,  and  insert  the  bit  that 'needs  sharpening  or  swedging. 

For  winter  sawing  use  a  sharp  bevel  bit  with  a  narrower  cutting 
point  than  that  used  in  summer.  Saws  over  48  inches  in  diameter, 
when  made  thinner  than  10  gauge,  ^  scant,  are  not  guaranteed. 

KEEP  YOUR   SAWS   IX   GOOD  CONDITION. 

If  through  constant  wear  a  saw  becomes  weak  and  limber,  the 
sockets  become  out  of  round,  and  the  teeth  show  a  tendency  to  break 
or  fall  out,  discard  it  at  once,  or  send  it  back  to  the  factory  to  be  fixed 
up.  Saws  which  have  passed  through  a  fire  can  be  repaired  if  any 
life  is  left  in  the  plate,  but,  of  course,  can  not  be  made  as  good  as  new. 
Shoulders  of  inserted-tooth  saws  that  are  broken  off  by  running 
against  iron  or  stone  can  be  welded  on  again,  provided  they  are  not 
broken  off  too  deep  in  the  plate.  If  they  are  broken  too  deep 
to  weld,  the  saw  can  sometimes  be  renewed  by  inserting  a  piece 
of  steel  and  boring  a  new  socket.  The  tendency  to  discard  saws  or 
"  scrap  "  them  is  very  general  in  all  mills,  big  and  little,  though  in 
many  instances,  particularly  in  small  mills,  the  fault  lies  with  the 
sawyer  and  not  with  the  saw.  A  little  more  attention  to  the  proper 
care  of  saws  would  remedy  this  evil.  If  an  operator  leaves  his  ma- 
chinery unhoused,  as  many  operators  do,  he  creates  a  condition  which 
no  amount  of  instruction  can  remedy. 

LOG  DECK. 

Every  mill  should  have  a  good  solid  log  deck  or  skidway  capable  of 
holding  from  100  to  200  logs,  and  built  with  enough  pitch  to  permit 
the  logs  to  roll  down  to  the  carriage  by  gravity.  Logs  should  be 
piled  in  the  yard  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  moved  to  the  log  deck 
with  the  least  possible  expense  and  labor.  This  the  small  operator 


32  BULLETIN  *718,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

commonly  fails  to  do.  As  often  as  not  the  logs  are  banked  in  a  mud 
hole.  Sometimes  300  or  400  logs  are  left  scattered  all  about  the 
yard,  so  that  a  man  and  team  are  kept  busy  in  getting  them  to  the 
log  carriage.  When  no  team  is  available,  the  logs  are  often  rolled 
by  hand  over  slabs,  rocks,  and  bark.  The  mill  is  stopped  and  all 
hands  are  called  on  to  help. 

This  is  surely  an  unnecessary  waste  of  time  and  energy.  Logs 
should  never  be  dumped  in  a  place  vfrom  which  it  will  cost  at  least 
half  as  much  more  to  get  them  to  the  leg  deck  as  it  did  to  load  and 
haul  them  to  the  yard.  Instead  they  should  be  piled  on  flat  skidways 
in  the  yard,  with  ends  touching  the  log  road.  The  hauling  team 
should  then  be  able  to  keep  the  saw  supplied  directly  from  the 
woods  or  from  the  logs  in  stock.  If  the  main  log  deck  is  kept  full 
all  the  time  the  mill  is  running,  there  is  little  chance  that  logs  will 
litter  the  yard. 

NARROW-GAUGE  LUMBER  LORRY  TRACK. 

A  narrow-gauge  lorry  track  is  almost  indispensable  to  a  small  mill. 
The  track  should  be  at  least  700  feet  in  length  and  so  constructed 
that  one  man  can  shove  a  loaded  lorry  or  car  over  it.  The  lumber 
piles  should  be  built  on  either  side  of  the  track,  to  enable  the  lorry 
man  to  unload  the  lumber  in  front  of  the  pile  which  its  grade 
calls  for.  Slabs  can  be  moved  by  the  same  means.  A  switch  and 
double  track  just  outside  the  mill  will  enable  the  off-bearer  to  load 
an  empty  car  while  the  lorry  man  is  unloading  another  in  the  yard 
and  piling  some  of  the  lumber.  Lorry  trucks  have  a  26|-inch  gauge 
and  2  i -inch  tread.  The  axles  are  of  steel  and  can  be  used  in  wood 
frames  without  boxes.  The  size  of  the  wheels  varies  from  8  to  16 
inches,  the  weight  from  110  to  262,  pounds. 

From  a  labor-saving  standpoint  the  lorry  track  is  one  of  the  most 
important  adjuncts  to  a  portable  mill  outfit.  It  revolutionizes  com- 
pletely the  old  manner  of  handling  lumber  and  does  away  with  the 
unseemly  clutter  of  slabs,  lumber,  and  other  debris  around  and  in  the 
mill. 

When  water  is  available  a  log  pond  and  jack  slip  are  also  very 
desirable. 

SETTING  UP  A  PORTABLE  MILL. 

For  foundation  timbers  place  two  pieces  10  by  10  inches  by  14  feet 
long  on  either  side  of  the  saw  pit  (which  is  supposed  to  be  3  or  4  feet 
deep  and  underneath  the  husk  frame)  well  bedded  in  the  ground  and 
extending  out  under  the  track  stringers,  taking  care  to  have  the  one 
that  is  under  the  front  end  of  the  husk  (where  the  sawyer  stands) 
placed  back  far  enough  to  clear  the  large  gear  wheel  and  so  that  the 
swinging  stirrup  will  not  strike  it.  One  piece  6  by  6  inches  by  8 
feet,  is  saddled  into  the  two  big  pieces  spanning  the  saw  pit  and 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.        .  33 

underneath  the  far  rail  of  the  track.  Never  make  the  mistake  of 
placing  the  large  gear  wheel  between  the  pinion  and  the  saw;  it 
should  be  outside  of  the  pinion.  First  set  the  husk  frame  and 
secure  it  to  the  bed  timbers  just  where  you  want  it.  Then  put  the 
large  gear  wheel,  with  its  shaft  which  carries  the  rack  pin  on  into  its 
proper  bearings,  in  the  central  section  of  track  timbers  just  where  it 
is  to  work.  Then  lay  this  section  of  track  timbers  in  position  on  the 
bed  timbers  beside  the  husk  frame  and  push  it  forward  until  the 
large  gear  comes  into  proper  mesh  with  the  feed  pinion  on  the  end 
of  the  sliding  friction  shaft.  The  inside  stringer  next  to  the  husk 
frame  has  the  flat  track  attached  to  it,  and  is  higher  than  the  outside 
stringer,  to  provide  for  the  difference  in  height  of  the  flat  and  V  track. 
The  V  track  is  placed  on  the  outside  stringer.  When  track  string- 
ers are  not  shipped  with  the  mill,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
inside  stringer  higher,  in  order  to  bring  the  top  of  both  tracks  on  a 
level.  Stringers  may  be  made  of  any  size  timber,  but  where  the  rack 
pinion  shaft  passes  through  the  inside  stringer  the  thickness  must  not 
be  over  3J  inches,  otherwise  the  track  pinion  can  not  be  lined  with 
the  rack  on  the  front  side  of  the  carriage.  (When  the  mill  is  a  large 
one,  No.  4  or  over,  this  does  not  apply.)  When  stringers  are  not  over 
3J  or  4J  inches  the  crossties  should  be  placed  18  inches  apart,  but  if 
heavier  stringers  are  used  the  ties  can  be  2  feet  or  more  apart. 

The  husk  and  track  stringers  are  not  always  on  the  same  level  on  the 
large  cross  sills.  In  most  cases  the  head  block  base  must  be  elevated 
by  placing  a  separate  piece  of  timber  under  each  end  of  the  husk 
on  top  of  the  cross  sills.  Head  blocks  should  be  1  inch  above  the 
saw  collar.  Do  not  line  up  under  the  head  blocks,  but  raise  the 
stringers  or  lower  the  husk  frame  until  the  blocks  are  in  proper 
position. 

To  insure  square,  accurate  lumber  the  husk  frame,  track,  car- 
riage, and  head  should  be  set  perfectly  level.  The  nose  or  front 
end  of  the  head  blocks  should  clear  the  saw  by  one-half  inch.  Set 
the  track  perfectly  parallel  with  the  front  side  qf  the  husk  frame 
and  see  that  it  is  true  and  level  from  end  to  end.  After  setting  the 
head  blocks  and  set  works  on  the  carriage,  pull  the  knees  forward 
until  they  are  even  with  the  front  end  of  the  head  block  bases,  then 
tighten  the  set-shaft  coupling,  and  after  that  raise  the  set  shaft  so 
that  the  pinions  will  mesh  deep  enough  in  the  racks  under  the  knees 
to  take  up  all  lost  motion.  Then  fasten  the  set-shaft  bearings  on 
the  side  of  the  head  block  base.  These  bearings  are  adjustable,  to 
provide  for  raising  and  lowering  the  set  shaft.  Run  the  knees  back 
and  forth  a  few  times  to  see  if  they  come  up  even  with  the  nose  of 
the  bases.  If  there  is  any  variation  it  can  be  adjusted  by  the  set- 
shaft  coupling.  The  mandrel  must  be  level,  and  the  journal  must 
fill  the  boxes  and  should  be  so  constructed  that  there  will  be  no 
63262°— 18— Bull.  718 5 


34  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

movement  endwise  when  the  mandrel  is  running.  The  mandrel  must 
fill  the  eye  of  the  saw,  but  enter  freely.  Always  use  a  wrench  and 
never  a  hammer  on  nut  of  arbor.  The  pins  in  the  collar  must  have 
a  fair  bearing.  Sometimes  when  driving  them  in  a  burr  is  thrown  up. 
If  not  carefully  filed  off  this  tends  to  throw  the  saw  over  to  one  side. 

After  the  mill  is  set  up  and  before  starting,  move  the  carriage 
slowly  by  means  of  the  sliding  paper  friction.  When  everything  is 
in  good  order  this  friction  can  be  turned  easily  by  hand  and  the  car- 
riage moved  in  either  direction.  If  it  can  not  be  easily  moved,  ex- 
amine the  gear  and  pinion  to  see  that  they  do  not  mesh  too  deep  or 
bind  against  the  flanges;  see  that  the  rack  pinions  do  not  mesh  too 
deeply  in  the  rack  under  the  carriage;  also  examine  the  set  col- 
lars on  the  track  axles  to  see  whether  they  are  too  tight  and  need 
slight  loosening.  The  carriage  will  run  hard  when  the  track  is 
not  level  and  straight.  Give  the  saw  from  one-eighth  to  one- fourth 
inch  lead  in  20  feet,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  saw  and  charac- 
ter of  the  lumber  to  be  made.  More  or  less  lead  is  given  the  saw 
by  means  of  set  screws  on  either  side  of  the  main  mandrel  bearing. 
Do  not  try  to  lead  the  saw  by  pulling  it  over  with  the  guide.  The 
wood  pins  in  a  saw  guide  clear  the  bottom  of  the  saw  teeth  by  an  inch. 

A  good  way  to  give  proper  lead  to  a  saw  is  to  turn  the  rear  head 
block  up  opposite  the  center  of  the  saw,  and  fasten  a  stick  or  board 
on  the  head  block  so  that  the  end  of  it  is  set  one-eighth  inch  from  the 
saw.  Then  run  the  carriage  back  until  this  stick  is  20  feet  from  the 
center  of  the  saw.  Then  stretch  a  line  from  the  end  of  the  stick 
along  the  face  of  the  saw,  so  that  it  touches  the  saw  on  both  edges. 
If  it  does  not  touch  the  saw  on  both  edges,  adjust  the  main  mandrel 
box  by  the  set  screws  on  each  side  of  it  until  it  does.  You  then  have 
one-eighth  inch  lead  in  20  feet.  This  is  called  slewing  the  mandrel 
to  regulate  the  lead.  The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  sighting 
over  the  saw  and  fixing  the  saw  plane  for  a  radius  of  10  feet.  This 
may  be  done  by  placing  two  shafts  vertically  into  the  ground  10  feet 
from  the  saw  center,  behind  and  in  front  of  the  saw.  Then  a  hori- 
zontal stick  is  fastened  to  a  head  block  so  as  to  just  touch  the  for- 
ward staff.  Then  the  carriage  is  gigged  backward  to  the  other  verti- 
cal staff,  where  the  horizontal  stick  must  lack  exactly  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  from  touching.  The  belt  holes  or  set  screws  in  the  boxes  of 
most  mandrels  are  slotted,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  loosen  the  set 
screws  and  move  the  boxes  one  way  or  the  other  by  a  few  light  blows 
of  a  hammer  in  order  to  get  the  proper  lead. 

OPERATING  THE  MILL. 

First  see  that  everything*  has  been  set  up  according  to  directions 
and  all  nuts  are  tight.  Then  with  kerosene  or  benzine  carefully 
clean  the  turned  surfaces  of  the  friction  disk  and  the  sliding  friction 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  35 

shaft,  taking  care  that  no  oil  or  grease  or  any  foreign  substances  get 
on  the  paper  frictions.  Nothing  should  ever  be  put  on  these ;  simply 
keep  them  clean  and  dry,  and  covered  so  that  the  greasy  sawdust  will 
not  get  into  them  and  cut  them  out.  If  the  frictions  should  become 
wet,  a  little  fine  sawdust  will  dry  them  nicely.  All  bearings  must  be 
kept  clean  and  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  'good  machine  oil. 
AVhere  grease  cups  are  used,  they  must  be  filled  with  a  good  grade  of 
grease  and  kept  covered  so  that  dirt  and  grit  will  not  work  into  them. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  all  of  these  at  regular  intervals  and  clean 
out  the  oil  holes. 

Start  the  mill  up  slowly,  see  that  the  bearings  are  not  too  tight, 
and  also  that  they  do  not  run  hot.  Do  not  try  to  cut  up  a  log  the 
very  first  thing.  Run  the  mill  empty  for  a  while  and  watch  every 
working  part  to  see  that  there  is  no  heating  and  that  nothing  needs 
adjustment.  Be  a  little  slack  on  the  frictions  until  you  learn  just 
how  to  work  them  nicely.  By  carelessness  or  crowding  the  pressure 
on  the  frictions  before  everything  is  working  nice  and  easy,  you  may 
grind  a  flat  place  on  the  sliding  paper  friction  and  destroy  its  use- 
fulness. When  everything  is  properly  set  up  and  correctly  adjusted 
a  very  slight  pressure  of  the  hand  on  the  feed  lever  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  run  the  carriage  when  sawing. 

Do  not  fasten  the  stirrup  in  any  way  at  the  bottom,  but  leave  it 
free  to  swing  back  and  forth  as  the  feed  lever  is  pressed  to  or  from 
the  disk.  The  upper  end  of  the  stirrup  must  be  fastened  to  the  iron 
lug  at  the  bottom  of  the  yoke  of  the  sliding  box  with  a  cap  screw.  It 
must  also  fit  up  in  the  socket  of  the  sliding  box,  so  that  it  will  move 
the  box  forward  and  bring  the  sliding  friction  up  against  the  disk 
when  the  feed  lever  is  pressed  forward. 

SAWING. 

For  your  first  sawing  pick  out  moderate-sized  logs.  Do  not  try  to 
get  full  capacity  out  of  your  mill  for  the  first  day  or  two.  See  that 
the  log  is  dogged  firmly  to  the  knees,  saw  slowly  and  get  the  "  hang  " 
of  your  mill,  and  let  the  working  parts  all  get  in  good  running  order. 
Use  an  extra  quantity  of  oil  until  everything  is  working  easily  and 
smoothly.  By  studying  the  set  works  on  the  carriage,  you  will  soon 
learn  to  cut  any  desired  thickness  of  lumber. 

A  working  knowledge  of  how  to  run  a  saw  can  be  easily  acquired. 
Of  course,  it  is  the  better  way,  if  possible,  to  take  lessons  from  some 
one  who  has  already  had  experience  of  this  kind.  If,  however,  no 
one  is  available,  start  very  slowly  until  you  know  just  what  feed 
you  can  give  the  various-sized  logs.  To  insure  that  the  logs  will  be 
cut  to  best  advantage,  the  amateur  sawmill  operator  should  take  a 
pair  of  dividers  or  a  piece  of  string  and  a  pencil  and  lay  out  several 


36  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

circles  representing  sizes  of  different  logs,  and  then  draw  in  the  ends 
of  the  boards  or  stock  in  the  way  you  wish  to  cut  them.  You  will 
soon  learn  the  best  way  to  turn  and  handle  logs  so  as  to  get  the 
most  desirable  and  best-sized  pieces  out  of  each  log.  Keep  your  mill 
clean  and  take  away  the  sawdust  and  do  not  let  everything  become 
covered  up  with  oil  and  dirt.  Keep  all  nuts  tightened  up  and  look 
your  mill  over  every  day  before  starting.  You  will  thus  save  many 
shutdowns. 

As  opposed  to  this  plan,  many  sawyers  cut  their  logs  up  "  alive  " 
without  turning  the  log  at  all,  edging  the  boards  afterwards  with 
the  circular  saw.  This  system  may  be  dismissed  as  the  very  "  limit " 
in  wasteful  milling.  Another  plan,  which  is  followed  by  quite  a 
number  of  operators,  is  to  slab  off  the  boards  on  four  sides  of  the 
log,  leaving  the  wane  on  each  board,  and  cutting  up  the  squared  por- 
tion into  planks  or  boards.  This  method  of  sawing  is  made  to  act  as 
a  grading  medium  for  the  lumber;  and,  accordingly,  we  find  such 
operators  selling  their  lumber  as  square  edge,  sheeting,  and  waney 
edge,  with  square-edge  lumber  topping  the  price  list  and  the  others 
in  order.  In  reality,  the  waney  edge,  if  run  through  an  edger, 
is  the  best  lumber  cut  from  the  outside  of  the  log,  although  by  this 
method  classed  as  lowest  in  price  and  grade.  However,  this  is  a 
little  better  than  the  "  saw- 'em-alive  "  system,  for  it  enables  the  oper- 
ator to  secure  a  higher  price  for  his  product,  although  mixing  his 
grades  unintentionally.  The  better  and  more  successful  class  of  oper- 
ators keep  close  supervision  on  the  sawyer  to  see  that  he  gets  the 
maximum  amount  of  good  lumber  out  of  each  log,  grade  their  lum- 
ber more  or  less  carefully,  and  pile  it  in  the  yard  according  to  grade 
and  dimensions.  They  are  generally  equipped  with  a  light  planer 
and  edger,  and  some  few  have  a  floorer.  A  few  of  these  operators 
occasionally  buy  the  better  quality  of  lumber  from  the  less  thrifty 
millmen  of  the  "  saw-'em-alive "  class,  grade,  edge,  and  surface  it, 
and  make  more  profit  than  the  man  who  logged  and  milled  it  in  the 
first  instance. 

The  greatest  defect  in  connection  with  a  portable  mill  seems  to  lie 
in  the  irregular  size  of  the  lumber  produced,  arising  from  the  in- 
ability of  the  sawyer  to  get  the  proper  "  lead  "  in  sawing.  Next  to 
this  is  lack  of  sufficient  power  in  boiler  and  engine.  The  effective 
horsepower  available  in  most  cases  is  far  below  what  the  mill  owyner 
supposes.  He  may  have  an  engine  of  25  or  30  indicated  horsepower, 
while  the  effective  power  for  working  purposes  may  be  only  10, 
owing  to  the  excessive  friction,  badly  lined  machinery,  poor  belting, 
and  leaking  cylinders.  Under  such  conditions  the  only  thing  for  the 
millman  to  do  is  to  employ  a  competent  mechanic  and  have  his  mill 
overhauled  and  put  in  proper  shape.  The  operator  who  does  not 
keep  his  mill  in  good  working  order  had  better  get  rid  of  it  at  once. 


SMALL  SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  §7 

PILING  LUMBER. 

Every  pile  of  lumber  should  rest  on  three  strong  horizontal  ground 
sills.  The  front  sill  should  be  higher  than  the  middle  and  back  sills- 
The  front  of  the  pile  should  be  given  an  overhanging  "batter"  to 
protect  it  from  the  rain.  The  usual  pitch  is  1  foot  to  10.  The  tiers 
of  boards  are  kept  apart  by  three  or  four  well-seasoned  crosspieces 
called  "  sticks  "  sawed  about  1  inch  square  and  placed  directly  over 
one  another  in  the  tiers.  The  usual  width  of  a  pile  is  from  6  to  10 
feet,  and  the  distance  between  piles  ought  to  be  3  feet.  Each  pile 
must  contain  equal  lengths,  as  "  overlaps  "  are  sure  to  get  spoiled. 
A  sufficient  air  chamber  should  be  left  in  the  center  of  the  pile  so 
that  the  stock  may  dry  rapidly.  When  fresh-sawed  lumber  is 
allowed  to  touch,  discoloration  of  the  portions  touching  is  sure  to 
ensue.  Each  pile  should  have  a  roof  12  inches  high  in  front  and 
6  inches  high  in  the  back,  projecting  on  all  sides.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent end  cracks,  the  sticking  should  be  placed  exactly  at  the  ends 
and  slightly  projecting  over  them.  Inch  boards  and  planks  should 
be  handled  carefully  when  being  piled  or  loaded  on  wagons.  If 
slammed  down  violently,  as  is  the  custom,  end  checks  are  likely  to 
develop  into  cracks  or  splits  which  spoil  the  grade  of  the  piece. 

A  2-acre  yard  or  piling  space  is  necessary  for  a  small  mill  carrying 
50,000  board  feet  in  stock.  Select  good  level  ground  for  your  lumber 
yard  and  see  that  the  lumber  is  neatly  piled  according  to  size  and 
grade.  You  will  get  more  for  your  lumber  if  you  can  show  it  to  a 
customer  in  this  condition  than  where  it  is  all  dumped  in  a  heap. 
Remember  that  the  mill  run  is  ordinarily  sold  at  a  loss  to  the  mill- 
man,  as  the  buyer  grades  it  according  to  the  lowest  quality  in  the 
whole  pile  and  not  according  to  the  high,  grades  which,  in  properly 
piled  stock,  would  be  sold  separately  and  at  higher  prices. 

FIRE  PROTECTION. 

There  is  little  use  in  going  to  the  expense  of  putting  up  a  mill  if 
it  is  allowed  to  burn  down.  Fire  is  an  ever-present  danger.  For 
writing  a  policy  on  the  ordinary  small  mill  fire  insurance  companies 
charge  a  premium  equivalent  to  20  per  cent  of  the  mill's  value,  which 
makes  the  expense  of  insurance  prohibitive  in  most  cases.  It  is  up 
to  the  owner,  then,  to  provide  fire  protection.  This  can  be  done  by 
installing  liquid  chemical  extinguishers  or  dry  chemical  extinguish- 
ers or  water  hose  that  can  be  attached  to  the  boiler.  Liquid  chemical 
extinguishers  may  freeze  in  winter,  and  dry  chemical  extinguishers 
are  expensive.  The  most  practical  equipment  for  a  portable  mill 
is  water  hose,  and  in  the  following  table  is  given  the  capacity  of  such 
hose  at  various  pressures : 


38  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Capacity  of  water  liose  at  various  pressures  (size  of  nozzle,  1  inch). 


Pressure  of  nozzle. 

40 
pounds. 

60 
pounds. 

80 
pounds. 

100 
pounds. 

Pressure  at  pump  with  100  feet  of  2Wnch  rul/ocr  liose,  pounds.  . 
Gallons  per  minute 

48 
155 
109 
79 

73 
189 
142 

108 

97 
219 
168 
131 

121 
245 
186 

148 

Horizontal  distance  thrown,  feet  

Vertical  distance,  feet 

LOGGING. 

SAW  CREW  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

For  a  mill  cutting  10,000  feet  (from  9  to  11  logs  per  thousand), 
two  pony  gangs  are  necessary.  If  the  sawyers  do  not  understand 
felling  and  how  to  get  straight  logs  and  good  lengths  out  of  the  tree 
after  it  is  felled,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  an  experienced  under- 
cutter  with  the  two  gangs.  One  of  the  crew  should  be  able  to  file  and 
fit  a  saw  properly.  Incidentally,  the  saw  should  be  a  good  one,  so 
that  the  filer  does  not  waste  time  trying  to  sharpen  it,  or  the  sawyers 
lose  5  or  10  minutes  in  every  cut.  The  same  applies  to  axes.  '  An  axe 
is  intended  to  chop,  not  to  bruise  timber,  and  must  be  kept  sharp  if 
it  is  to  be  used  effectively.  It  should  be  ground  on  a  grindstone,  not 
rubbed  with  a  file.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  many  men 
working  round  a  small  mill  understand  how  to  grind  an  ax  properly. 
The  knowledge  of  making  ax  handles,  oxbows,  and  yokes  is  a  lost 
art,  yet  when  a  man  is  working  20  or  30  miles  away  from  a  hardware 
store  and  there  are  no  ax  handles  in  camp,  this  knowledge  would 
come  in  handy. 

A  saw  gang  of  two  men,  equipped  with  the  proper  tools  and  work- 
ing in  timber  which  will  run  from  8  to  10  logs  per  1,000  feet,  will 
ordinarily  cut  between  5,000  and  6,000  feet  per  day,  the  logs  varying 
in  length  from  12  to  16  feet.  The  average  wage  for  this  class  of 
work  in  1916  was  approximately  $3  per  day,  board  not  included.  If 
the  average  cut  is  5,000  feet  per  day,  the  cost  per  1,000  for  sawing 
would  be  $1.20.  On  the  other  hand,  take  two  equally  good  sawyers 
and  equip  them  with  a  rusty  worn-out  saw,  poor  axes,  and  no  wedges, 
and  the  best  they  can  cut  will  be  around  3,000  feet  per  day.  At  the 
same  rate  of  wages  this  timber  will  cost  the  operator  $2  per  1,000  for 
bucking  alone.  The  latter  crew  loses  the  price  of  a  new  crosscut  saw 
every  seven  working  days,  or  the  price  of  a  new  ax  every  day.  Lack 
of  good  cant  hooks,  swamp  hooks,  logging  chains,  etc.,  cuts  further 
into  the  profit  margin. 

Each  saw  gang  should  be  provided  with  a  pair  of  good  steel  wedges 
(preferably  forged  crucible  tool  steel)  and  a  maul  to  drive  them. 
The  usual  practice  is  for  the  sawyer  to  stop  and  whittle  out  a  wooden 


SMALL  SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  39 

wedge  when  he  needs  it.  In  doing  this  a  gang  cf  sawyers  loses  more 
time  each  day  than  is  represented  by  the  cost  of  a  set  of  good  steel 
wedges.  If  not  equipped  with  a  maul,  a  sawyer  will  spoil  a  dollar 
ax  in  five  minutes  trying  to  drive  steel  wedges  with  it.  Tying  the 
wedges  together  with  baling  wire  when  not  in  use  will  prevent  them 
from  being  lost.  Each  gang  should  have  a  flat  bottle,  easily  carried 
in  the  hip  pocket,  to  hold  kerosene  with  which  to  spray  the  saw 
occasionally. 

CROSSCUT  SAWS. 

I 

Ordinarily  a  6-foot  saw  is  best  adapted  to  the  size  of  timber  in  the 
inter-mountain  country.  In  some  stands,  however,  a  longer  saw  is 
necessary.  The  back  of  the  saw  is  always  somewhat  thinner  than 
the  gauge  of  the  teeth,  and  usually  about  two  gauges  heavier  on  the 
ends,  which  makes  it  stiffer  and  prevents  "buckling"  when  the 
sawyer  pushes  a  trifle  on  the  back  stroke. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  teeth,  viz.,  the  cutting  teeth  and  rakers. 
Only  the  points  of  the  cutters  actually  cut  into  the  fiber ;  the  rakers 
are  meant  to  plane  off  the  fiber  severed  by  the  cutting  teeth  and  to 
drag  the  sawdust  out  of  the  cut.  A  curved  saw  will  cut  faster  and 
with  less  exertion  than  a  straight  saw. 

A  filer's  outfit  consists  of  a  jointer,  a  raker  tooth  gauge,  files, 
a  raker  swage,  a  set  block,  and  a  light  hammer.  In  fitting  a  saw  the 
teeth  should  first  be  jointed  or  made  uniform  in  length.  To  do  this 
place  a  9-inch  file  in  the  jointer  and,  by  means  of  the  large  screw, 
spring  it  to  suit  the  curve  of  the  saw  and  pass  it  lightly  over  the 
points  of  the  teeth  until  it  touches  the  shortest  tootti.  Then  place 
the  tooth  gauge  over  the  cleaner  drag  teeth  and  file  them  down  to  the 
gauge,  afterwards  filing  them  squarely  across  to  a  point  as  desired. 

If  the  saw  requires  setting,  place  the  setting  block  on  a  log  that 
has  been  leveled  to  receive  it,  then  place  the  saw  upon  the  setting 
block  so  that  the  point  of  the  tooth  to  be  set  projects  over  the  apex 
of  the  beveled  surface  fully  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Then  give  two  or 
three  strokes  with  a  light  hammer  on  the  side  cf  the  tooth  over  the 
apex  fully  one- fourth  inch  from  the  point  which  will  usually  give 
the  required  set.  Then  move  the  tooth  forward  over  the  bevel  or 
channelling  block  and  strike  it  a  sharp  blow  directly  over  the  point. 
This  will  make  a  slight  depression  below  the  point  of  the  tooth, 
which  serves  to  keep  the  cutting  edges  flush,  giving  them  greater 
cutting  power  and  relieving  the  pressure  on  the  back  of  the  tooth. 
Regulate  the  set  by  gauging  each  tooth  with  the  tooth  gauge.  Take 
the  gauge  in  the  left  hand  and  place  it  against  the  side  of  the  saw. 
The  point  on  the  short  end  indicates  the  least  set,  and  the  point  on 
the  long  end  indicates  a  little  more  set.  Experienced  saw  filers  say 
that  setting  should  never  go  lower  than  half  the  length  of  the  tooth, 


40  BULLETIN   718,  U.   B.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

should  never  exceed  twice  the  gauge  of  the  tooth,  and  that  more  set 
is  needed  in  long  saws  and  for  softwoods  than  for  short  saws  and 
hardwoods. 

The  side  file  should  be  used  to  remove  any  feather  edge  or  burr 
left  in  filing  and  to  even  up  the  set  perfectly.  This  can  be  done  while 
the  saw  is  in  the  vise  or  filing  clamp.  Place  an  8-inch  mill  bastard 
file  in  the  recess  on  the  side  file  and  tighten  the  screws  holding  the 
file.  Be  particular  that  the  saw  is  held  firmly  in  the  clamp.  Pass  the 
center  of  the  file  lightly  against  the  teeth  until  the  burr  is  removed 
and  the  set  evened  up.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  the  side  file 
more  than  is  necessary  to  remove  the  feather  edge  and  even  up  the 
set.  The  wrench  may  be  used  to  lessen  the  set  if  necessary,  but  should 
never  be  used  to  set  the  teeth.  This  should  be  done  only  with  a 
hammer  upon  the  setting  block  or  on  any  hard  and  slightly  beveled 
surface.  Notice  carefully  the  manner  in  which  the  saw  is  filed  when 
new,  and  file  as  nearly  as  possible  along  the  same  lines. 

To  secure  the  best  results,  the  saw  should  be  sharpened  after  being 
set.  If  it  is  desired  merely  to  swage  the  point  of  the  rakers,  this  may 
be  done  with  a  light  blow  of  the  hammer  on  the  extreme  point  of  the 
raker  teeth.  A  raker  gauge,  the  flange  of  which  rests  on  the  points 
of  the  cutting  teeth,  is  useful  for  inexperienced -saw  filers.  The  filer 
can  reduce  the  projecting  points  with  the  file  until  stopped  by  the 
edge  .of  the  gauge.  In  this  manner  tooth  after  tooth  can  be  rapidly 
and  correctly  reduced  to  an  even  length  by  any  unskilled  operator. 

A  saw  now  on  the  market  has  the  teeth  in  groups  of  three,  the 
center  one  a  outting  tooth  and  the  ones  on  either  side  rakers.  The 
cutting  teeth  are  set,  but  the  rakers  are  not.  The  saw  can  be  used 
for  any  kind  of  timber,  the  teeth  varying  in  size  according  to  the 
wrork  they  are  to  do.  The  raker  teeth  are  beveled  to  form  a  sharp 
point  and  have  cutting  edges,  thus  forming  a  combined  raker  and 
cutting  tooth.  This  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  saw. 

In  ripping,  the  bottom  of  the  kerf  is  cut  sideways.  This  causes 
the  saw  to  rip  faster  and  easier  than  the  old-style  ripsaw,  which 
works  chisel  fashion  and  has  to  cut  the  wood  almost  square  across  the 
grain.  The  set  which  is  given  the  cutting  teeth  assists  the  rakers 
very  materially  by  cutting  the  kerf  a  little  wider  than  the  raker  teeth 
and  by  cutting  the  sides  of  the  kerf  perfectly  smooth.  This  causes 
the  saw  to  run  freely  and  easily.  Ripping  is  done  by  cutting,  instead 
of  tearing,  as  is  the  ?ase  with  the  old-style  ripsaw. 

In  crosscutting,  the  teeth  cut  in  four  different  lines  in  the  kerf. 
In  this  way  the  fibers  are  cut  in  small,  short  pieces  and  are  much 
easier  to  break  out  than  if  they  extended  clear  across  the  kerf.  As 
all  teeth  are  of  the  same  length  they  loosen  the  sawdust  clear  to  the 
bottom  of  the  kerf,  thus  removing  much  friction  that  occurs  where 
a  square  raker  tooth  is  used.  This  style  of  tooth  works  equally  well 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR   EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  41 

in  ripping,  miter,  or  crosscutting,  and  in  all  kinds  of  soft  and  hard 
wood,  as  well  as  where  knots  occur  and  the  grain  is  tangled  in  many 
different  directions.  That  the  saw  will  cut  faster  and  run  easier 
either  way  than  any  other  saw  that  is  filed  for  one  purpose  is  claimed 
by  the  makers.  No  gauge  is  required  to  cut  the  raker  teeth  down  to 
the  proper  length,  nor  does  it  materially  interfere  with  the  proper 
working  of  the  saw  if  raker  or  cutting  teeth  are  filed  shorter  than  the 
others  here  and  there. 

In  filing  this  saw,  joint  down  the  points  of  the  teeth  with  a  flat  file 
until  the  file  touches  every  tooth.  Set  the  cutting  teeth  (the  middle 
teeth  in  every  group)  a  good  ways  back,  making  a  gradual  bend, 
then  pass  a  flat  file  along  the  sides  of  the  teeth  to  even  the  set.  File 
all  the  raker  and  cutting  teeth  almost  to  a  point ;  then  file  to  form  a 
chisel  point.  Pass  a  flat  file  along  the  sides  of  the  teeth  to  remove 
the  featheredge.  Keep  the  saw  in  a  leaning  position,  as  it  enables 
you  to  file  a  full  bevel.  The  more  bevel  you  give  the  teeth  the  faster 
the  saw  will  cut.  Carefully  notice  the  shape  of  the  teeth  in  a  new 
saw  and  file  to  conform  with  them  as  nearly  as  possible. 

The  file  should  be  laid  between  the  teeth,  with  its  flat  side  on  the 
bevel  of  the  tooth  you  are  filing,  but  without  touching  the  point  of 
the  next  tooth.  Each  tooth  is  filed  separately.  The  teeth,  when  new, 
are  cut  deeper  than  is  required  for  the  angle  of  the  tooth,  so  that 
the  bevel  is  full  only  a  little  ways  down  from  the  point.  After  a 
few  filings,  however,  the  bevel  will  be  full  clear  down  to  the  base  of 
the  tooth.  In  this  way  every  filing  will  gum  all  teeth  except  the  big 
gullet,  and  that  should  be  filed  frequently  to  afford  plenty  of  room 
for  cleaning  out  the  sawdust.  This  can  be  done  with  the  edge  of  a 
flat  file,  or  with  a  round  one,  if  you  prefer  a  round  gullet.  Do  not 
file  the  gullet  wider  than  it  is  in  a  new  saw. 

NOTCHING  AND  FELLING. 

The  proper  method  of  felling,  bucking,  skidding,  and  loading  logs 
is  one  of  the  principal  subjects  upon  which  the  average  mill  operator 
needs  information.  When  not  properly  handled,  it  is  likely  to  be 
one  of  the  costliest  items  in  his  business. 

Run  a  cut  in  the  butt  of  the  tree  to  be  felled  as  deep  as  the  size 
of  the  tree  calls  for  and  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the 
tree  is  supposed  to  fall.  Take  the  axe  and  chip  out  a  notch  above 
the  cut  or  below  it,  leaving  a  clear  notch  in  the  butt.  When  the  bark 
is  rough  at  the  base  of  the  tree,  chop  a  girdle  round  in  the  line  of  the 
saw  cut.  But  before  doing  this,  select  the  best  ground  on  which  to 
fall  the  tree,  to  prevent  breaking  or  pinching  when  the  tree  is  being 
made  into  logs.  If  the  tree  to  be  felled  leans  heavily  in  one  direc- 
tion, it  is  the  better  plan  to  notch  a  little  to  one  side  or  the  other  to 
which  the  tree  leans,  and  after  starting  the  cut  in  the  opposite  side 


42  BULLETIN    718,   U.    S.    DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  tree  (notch)  "  saw  round  "  or  cut  the  corners,  leaving  a  couple 
of  inches  of  the  fiber  between  the  saw  cut  and  the  notch  uncut  on  one 
corner.  In  this  way  the  strain  which  will  be  exerted  when  the  tree  is 
falling  will  pull  the  body  of  the  tree  in  the  direction  you  want  it  to 
fall.  "  Sawing  round  "  prevents  a  leaning  tree  from  splitting  on  the 
stump  and  possibly  breaking  the  saw. 

In  felling  very  tall  straight  timber  with  a  heavy  crown  it  is  some- 
times difficult  to  ascertain  in  which  direction  the  tree  leans  the  heav- 
iest until  the  saw  is  half  way  in  the  cut,  when  the  saw  becomes  fast 
and  requires  heavy  wedging  to  loosen  it.  In  wedging  such  trees,  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  them  from  coming  back  over  the  cut 
and  injuring  the  men.  Thick  wooden  wedges  are  used  in  extreme 
cases  of  this  kind.  Men  felling  timber  should  always  yell  "  timber  " 
before  the  tree  starts  to  fall,  and  when  it  starts,  should  remove  the 
saw  and  stand  clear. 

The  tree  shpuld  never  be  completely  severed  from  the  stump.  Or- 
dinarily a  tree,  when  falling,  will  break  off  2  or  3  inches  of  the  fiber 
between  the  saw  cut  and  the  notch.  A  heavy  notch  which  leaves  a 
long  stub  on  the  butt  log  should  be  avoided. 

Sawyers  should  endeavor  to  fall  the  timber  as  favorably  as  possible 
for  skidding  purposes,  and  in  a  way  to  prevent  the  cuts  from  pinch- 
ing the  saw.  A  little  care  along  those  lines  will  perceptibly  affect 
the  volume  of  cut.  Keep  count  of  the  number  of  logs  each  gang  cuts 
per  day. 

If  a  tree  lodges  in  another  when  falling,  fall  the  one  it  is  lodged 
against  at  once,  or,  if  you  are  an  expert  in  judging  the  direction  of 
falling  timber,  fall  another  one  against  the  one  lodged  so  as  to  bring 
down  the  latter.  Never  continue  working  around  a  lodged  tree.  It  is 
likely  to  hit  you  when  you  are  not  expecting  it. 

After  a  tree  is  down,  the  limbs  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  bole 
and  thrown  out  of  the  way.  The  next  step  is  to  measure  off  each  log 
by. placing  the  measuring  stick  (8  feet  long)  flat  on  the  bole  and 
clipping  a  piece  of  bark  off  at  the  end  of  the  first  8  feet,  then  mov- 
ing the  stick  forward  to  the  exact  length  of  the  log  to  be  cut  and 
making  a  plain  notch  in  the  bark  for  2  or  3  inches  over  the  exact 
length,  to  allow  for  trimming  and  broomage  on  the  ends.  Walk 
alongside  the  tree,  and  not  on  it,  when  measuring  the  logs. 

All  logs  should  be  straight.  If  a  sweep  occurs  in  a  tree,  cut  in  the 
sweep.  If  a  cut  pinches,  cut  a  double  length  log  and  get  the  teamster 
to  pull  it  out  to  where  it  can  be  sawed  without  "  pinching."  If  there 
is  a  break,  cut  up  to  the  break  and  start  your  next  log  on  the  other 
side  of  it.  If  a  crotch  is  in  the  tree,  cut  out  the  crotch,  but  don't 
waste  any  lumber  in  doing  it.  If  a  felled  tree  balances  on  a  knoll 
or  on  another  tree,  prop  the  light  end.  If  part  of  the  bole  is  limby 
and  part  is  smooth,  have  as  much  of  the  smooth  portion  as  possible 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR   EQUIPMENT,   ETC.     '  43 

in  one  or  two-  logs  and  the  rough  knotty  portions  in  different  cuts. 
If  a  tree  is  punky  or  dozy  or  has  dry  knots  or  blind  punk,  measure 
off  the  logs  so  as  to  confine  the  defective  part,  as  much  as  possible,  to 
one  log  length.  Sever  each  log  completely  from  the  one  next  to  it. 
Cut  up  all  down  timber  and  skid  it  before  felling  any  green  timber 
on  top  of  it.  Do  not  leave  a  "  chip  "  at  the  bottom  of  each  cut — it 
annoys  the  skidder.  Do  not  saw  anything  but  the  log.  If  the  ground 
is  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  log,  "  saw  short "  or  dig  a  channel 
for  the  saw ;  look  out  for  rocks.  Do  not  allow  your  saw  to  "  run  " — 
make  a  square  cut  every  time. 

Where  there  is  an  undercutter  on  the  job — and  there  should  not 
be  one  unless  he  understands  his  business — it  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
him  notch  a  number  of  trees  ahead  for  the  sawyers  to  fell.  This 
enables  the  sawyers  to  work  to  better  advantage  with  the  skidders. 
Before  bucking  up  any  of  the  down  timber,  the  undercutter  can  trim 
the  trees  ahead  of  the  saw  gang,  who  will  then  have  no  brush  to  re- 
tard their  work,  while  the  skidding  teamster  can  figure  ahead  on  his 
skid  roads.  Brush  disposal  should  follow  skidding. 

A  logger  should  cut  his  log  lengths  with  a  strict  regard  to  the 
current  prices  for  lumber  of  different  lengths.  .Then,  if  he  grades 
his  lumber,  he  will  not  sell  what  should  be  2-inch  No.  1  shop,  12  inches 
wide,  18  and  20  feet  long,  as  No.  3  common. 

PREPARING  SPECIAL  PRODUCTS. 

Mine  props,  telegraph,  telephone,  or  power  poles  should  be  trimmed 
and  peeled,  piled  carefully  according  to  lengths,  and  air  dried  before 
shipment.  The  successful  marketing  of  such  special  products  de- 
pends largely  on  how  they  are  prepared.  If  a  mine  operator  gives  an 
order  for  a  carload  or  two  of  7-foot  mine  props  and  gets  an  assort- 
ment of  green  props  of  irregular  lengths  with  the  ends  chopped  or 
"chewed"  off,  the  bark -on,  and  snags  all  over  the  bole,  be  assured 
that  if  he  accepts  them  at  all  it  will  be  at  a  reduced  price  and  that  he 
will  look  to  some  other  source  for  material  in  the  future.  Careless 
preparation  has  in  more  than  one  instance  prevented  the  utilization 
of  large  quantities  of  timber  wnich,  if  properly  handled,  would  have 
been  entirely  acceptable  to  the  mining  operators.  When  a  mine  op- 
erator has  to  "  fit "  each  prop  after  receiving  it,  that  is,  trim  the 
knots  off,  peel  it,  and  square  the  ends  to  the  proper  length,  he  is  doing 
work  which  you  should  have  done,  and  he  knows  it.  Again,  if  a 
mine  operator  places  an  order  for  green  lodgepole  pine,  do  not  try 
to  pass  off  dead  timber  of  the  same  species  or  ship  a  mixed  carload 
of  alpine  fir,  white  fir,  aspen,  and  lodgepole.  You  may  work  off  one 
carload,  but  that  will  be  all.  / 

When  such  material  has  to  be  shipped  by  rail,  freight  charges  be- 
come an  important  factor  in  favor  of  the  local  man.  Yet  tha  foreign 


44  BULLETIN   718,  U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

shipper  who  prepares  his  mine  timbers  properly  can,  on  a  400-mile 
rail  haul,  create  and  hold  a  market  for  the  same  species  of  mine  prop 
material  which  the  local  operator  can  not  sell  at  all,  although  his 
product  is  300  or  more  miles  closer  to  the  consuming  center.  The  sole 
reason  is  that  the  local  man  does  not  prepare  his  material  properly. 
Tell  the  mine  operator  just  what  species  of  timber  you  have  for  sale 
and  ship  it  to  him  properly  made  up  and  you  will  hold  his  trade. 

THE  MAIN  LOGGING  ROAD. 

A  logger  should  never  forget  that  it  is  cheaper  and  more  economical 
to  haul  a  load  of  logs  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  his  mill  on  a  downhill 
road  or  on  the  level  than  it  is  to  haul  a  similar  load  a  rod  uphill. 
Run  the  main  road  through  the  stand  to  be  cut,  if  the  ground  is  level, 
or  below  the  timber  if  the  stand  is  .on  a  side  hill.  Keep  your  cutting 
area  compact,  and  when  you  make  a  skid  road,  take  out  all  the  timber 
tributary  to  it  before  you  move  to  the  next  one. 

If  you  have  to  haul  up  a  hill,  double  up ;  do  not  figure  on  loads  that 
one  team  can  handle  over  a  hill.  If  the  road  is  too  steep,  use  a  block 
and  line.  Do  not  waste  time  in  trying  to  force  your  single  team  to 
haul  a  load  which  a  four-horse  team  can  hardly  get  away  with.  If 
the  ground  is  rough  and  rocky,  use  dynamite  and  build  a  good  main 
road  and  keep  it  in  good  order.  Breakage  and  wear  and  tear  on 
equipment  and  horses  over  a  bad  road  will  buy  a  lot  of  powder  and 
keep  a  road  in  fine  shape. 

One  thousand  feet  of  logs  weigh  approximately  4J  tons.  It  would 
take  a  good  team  to  haul  such  a  load  over  a  paved  street.  Why  try 
to  haul  it  over  rocks,  ruts,  and  logs  when  logging  in  the  hills  with 
a  pair  of  cayuses  ?  A  logger  should  remember  that  the  value  of  the 
time  lost  and  the  injury  to  teams  and  equipment  while  struggling 
to  pull  off  impossible  stunts  in  logging  is  always  a  prolific  source  of 
loss.  If  iced  or  even  snow  roads  were  possible,  it  might  be  different ; 
but  a  dirt  road  must  be  well  built. 

If  the  timber  is  large,  use  a  gin  pole  and  crotch  line  in  loading; 
use  bunk  chains  or  corner  binds  in  holding  the  first  tier  of  logs  on 
the  truck  or  sled.  A  couple  of  logs  ori  top  of  the  binding  chain  will 
hold  them  taut.  A  spring  pole  is  dangerous  to  use  and  not  a  safe 
bind  on  a  load  of  logs.  Have  your  toggle  bind  and  grabs  on  the  un- 
loading side. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  part  of  the  timber  is  relatively  close 
to  the  mill  and  part  farther  away  and  not  so  accessible,  and  the 
character  of  the  road  such  as  to  prevent  the.  hauling  of  a  maximum 
load  every  trip.  In  this  case  it  will  be  found  economical  to  skid  up 
the  "  close"  timber  along  the  mam  road  and  "  top  off"  the  long-haul 
loads  to  their  full  capacity  QII  their  way  to  the  mill. 


SMALL  SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  45 

SKIDDING. 

Skid  or  dray  roads  are  not  supposed  to  receive  as  much  attention 
in  construction  as  main  logging  roads.  Nevertheless,  they  should  be 
kept  reasonably  clear  and  should  be  laid  out  with  considerable  care. 
On  steep  hillsides  it  is  sometimes  feasible  to  build  bench  roads  along 
the  face  of  the  hill.  The  logs  are  skidded  to  the  nearest  bench  and 
then  rolled  by  hand  to  the  next  bench,  and  so  on  down  to  the  base  of 
the  hill,  where  the  trucks  can  handle  them  to  the  landing.  In  some 
cases  where  the  power  (oxen  or  horses)  is  available  and  the  distance 
to  the  mill  is  not  over  half  a  mile  logging  "  from  the  stump  "  can 
be  done  to  advantage. 

Use  a  dray  or  go-devil  to  skid  the  logs  out  to  the  main  road. 
Skidding  logs  by  chain,  except  on  a  downhill  haul,  or  on  level,  smooth 
ground,  is  waste  of  time.  A  team  can  haul  three  logs  on  a  dray  over 
rough  ground  with  less  effort  than  it  takes  to  haul  one  log  by  tongs 
or  a  chain. 

When  a  tree  is  cut  into  logs  in  the  woods,,  the  skidding  teamster 
should  place  his  dray  alongside  the  end  log  with  a  short  skid  resting 
on  the  dray,  set  his  swamp  hook  low  down  on  the  far  side  of  the  log, 
hitch  his  whiffletrees  to  the  sAvamp-hook  chain,  start  up  his  team, 
and  roll  the  log  onto  the  bunk  of  the  dray.  If  the  log  is  a  big  one, 
it  should  be  peeled  on  the  side  which  drags  on  the  ground.  If  your 
team  can  haul  more  than  one  log,  fasten  the  first  log  on  the  dray  and 
move  up  to  the  next  and  repeat  the  same  operation.  If  the  tree  has 
fallen  in  a  position  difficult  to  load  easily,  hitch  on  the  block  and  line 
and  boost  the  log  out  to  where  it  can  be  handled.  Do  not  make  your 
team  pull  a  log  on  the  chains  or  tongs  out  of  a  pothole  or  from 
between  two  rocks  or  stumps  simply  for  the 'satisfaction  of  seeing 
them  do  it.  Get  the  log  out  in  the  easiest  and  quickest  way  possible 
and  spare  the  team  and  rigging. 

When  loading  logs  on  the  skidway,  place  the  ends  which  will  come 
on  the  front  of  the  load  even.  This  can  be  done  very  easily  when 
filling  the  skidway,  but  not  so  easily  with  the  skidway  full.  "  Eoss- 
ing,"  or  peeling  the  bark  off  logs,  particularly  large  ones,  will  make 
skidding  easier  and  prevent  insect  attack.  "Snipping"  the  forward 
end  is  also  resorted  to,  but  a  log  so  large  and  heavy  that  the  front 
end  digs  into  the  ground  when  being  hauled  on  a  chain  or  tongs 
should  be  loaded  on  a  dray. 

Logs  on  a  travois  or  dray  should  be  balanced  on  the  bunk  of  the 
dray  in  such  a  manner  that  approximately  two-thirds  of  the  weight 
of  the  load  is  behind  the  bunk.  Logs  will  haul  easier  when  the 
heaviest  end  drags  on  the  ground.  They  should  be  so  balanced  that 
if  the  runners  should  strike  on  a  rock,  the  dray  will  partially  lift 


46  BULLETIN   718,   U.   S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

and  slide  over  the  obstruction.  If  the  load  rests  wholly  on  the  bunk 
and  runners,  the  team  will  be  unable  to  lift  the  load. 

In  addition  to  the  main  binding  chain,  on  the  end  of  which  there 
is  usually  a  round  hook,  a  skidding  teamster  should  always  be  pro- 
vided with  a  grab  or  fit  hook  with  which  to  keep  his  load  snug  and 
to  take  up  slack  when  necessary. 

Snags  and  stumps  should  be  removed  or  cut  low  along  a  skid  road. 
Windfalls  and  loose  rocks  should  be  thrown  out  of  the  road,  and 
chuck  holes  filled  up.  Never  try  to  haul  or  skid  logs  over  a  swamp  or 
bog  unless  it  is  frozen  hard  enough  to  carry  teams ;  build  a  corduroy 
road.  If  water  is  available,  the  skidding  teams  should  be  fed  in  the 
timber.  Build  a  brush  shelter  equipped  with  feed  boxes  and  keep  a 
few  days'  supply  of  hay  and  grain  stored  there.  Remove  the  harness 
while  the  horses  are  feeding.  Never,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  throw  grain 
on  the  ground  for  teams  to  eat.  Have  fly  nets  for  the  horses  in  warm 
weather  and  keep  the  horses  shod. 

Skidding  equipment  consists  of  good  harness,  whiffletrees  and  trace 
chains,  logging  chain,  cold  shuts,  tongs,  swamp  hook,  cant  hooks,  ax, 
w  Sampson,"  travels  or  dray,  skids,  block  and  line.  A  jackknife 
dray,  with  a  3-foot  bunk  spiked  and  fitted  with  bunk  chains,  is  pre- 
ferred. This  dray  is  so  constructed  that  if  it  strikes  any  obstruction 
it  will  "  jackknife,"  or  partially  fold.  There  should  be  spike  skids 
for  decking  on  the  skidways  when  teams  are  not  available.  Both 
smooth  and  spiked  skids  should  be  shod  with  iron  on  one  end  to 
prevent  slipping.  When  teams  are  not  available  and  the  logs  are 
small  (10  per  1,000  feet),  two  men  can  load  ("spike")  logs  onto  a 
truck  or  "  deck  " ;  but  when  large  logs  are  being  handled  a  gin  pole 
and  loading  line  (parbuckle)  is  necessary.  If  the  men  are  inexpe- 
rienced in  the  use  of  cant  hooks,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  small  opera- 
tions, a  crotch  loading  line  is  preferable,  because  one  end  of  the  log 
can  not  slide  ahead  when  rolling  up  the  skid,  as  it  is  likely  to  do  in  a 
single  line,  particularly  if  the  log  is  larger  at  one  end  than  at  the 
other.  Several  small  logs  can  be  "  sent  up  "  in  a  crotch  line  at  one 
trip,  but  not  so  easily  in  a  single  line. 

SKIDWAYS. 

A  skidway  should  be  centrally  located  and  the  approach  so  graded 
or  so  gradual  as  to  avoid  an  uphill  haul.  The  end  of  the  skids  should 
be  blocked  or  preferably  bridged  apart,  so  that  the  team  will  have 
firm  footing  when  crossing  the  skids.  The  front  end  or  head  blocks 
should,  if  possible,  be  high  enough  to  make  it  possible,  when  the 
skids  rest  on  them,  to  roll  on  the  first  tier  of  logs  by  hand.  The 
skids  should  have  a  slight  slope  toward  the  front.  The  ground 
alongside  the  skidway  should  be  cleared  of  brush,  so  that  the  longest 
log  will  not  catch  on  the  ends.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  build  a  skid- 


SMALL  SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  47 

way  at  all  if  logs  can  not  be  handled  from  it  faster  and  with  less 
effort  than  they  can  be  loaded  a-mong  the  brush  on  the  dray  road. 
The  purpose  of  a  skidway  is  to  expedite  the  work.  A  poor  skidway 
will  retard  it. 

Chaining  or  tonging  logs  onto  a  skidway,  except  on  a  close  haul, 
is  not  recommended.  A  tonged  or  chained  log,  unless  turned  on  the 
chain  or  tongs  before  it  strikes  the  skids,  will  tear  up  the  approach 
and  make  hard  hauling.  A  dray  is  much  better,  for  besides  hauling 
more  logs  to  a  trip  it  is  not  so  hard  on  the  approach  to  the  skids. 

A  skidway  should  be  4  feet  wide  or  wider,  if  the  logs  are  double 
length,  and  long  enough  to  hold  at  least  one  day's  haul  without  deck- 
ing. The  skids  should  be  tolerably  straight,  of  equal  height,  and 
free  from  knots.  If  the  skids  are  unusually  long  they  should  be 
blocked  up  in  the  center  to  prevent  them  from  sagging  or  breaking. 
If  possible,  it  is  a  good  plan  to-  embed  the  hind  end  of  the  skids  in 
the  ground.  If  the  logs  are  small  and  light,  a  light-built  skidway 
will  answer  the  purpose ;  if  heavy  logs  are  to  be  loaded,  make  it  solid. 

I  have  seen  four  men  with  two  teams  struggle  for  two  hours  to  load 
an  800  board-foot  log  on  a  truck  from  smooth  skids  and  fail,  while 
all  the  time  the  teams  stood  idle.  Yet  with  an  improvised  parbuckle 
(a  rope  spliced  to  a  logging  chain)  the  same  log  was  loaded  with  the 
aid  of  a  team  in  five  minutes.  In  this  instance  the  haul  to  the  mill 
was  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  it  took  four  men  and  two  teams  one-half 
a  day  to  land  that  log  on  the  mill  yard,  and  cost  the  operator  $7,  or 
at  the  rate  of  $9  per  1,000  for  loading  and  hauling  alone.  The  log 
was  the  butt  cut  of  a  five-log  tree  and  not  entirely  severed  from  the 
next  log.  Instead  of  skidding  the  five  logs  to  the  main  road  where 
there  was  a  good  skidway  chance,  and  where  that  log  and  another 
one  could  have  been  loaded  by  hand  upon  the  truck,  the  operator 
attempted  to  load  the  log  at  the  stump.  The  heaviest  part  of  the 
haul  was  from  the  stump  to  the  main  road.  Owing  to  the  position  of 
the  logs,  only  one  could  be  loaded  on  the  truck,  even  though  the  four 
horses  might  have  handled  more  than  one.  The  men  had  no  cant 
hook  or  swamp  hook  with  which  to  roll  the  log  over  and  no  loading 
line  or  parbuckle  by  which  to  load  it.  Handspikes  and  an  old  peevy 
and  a  piece  of  a  logging  chain  were  the  only  equipment  available. 
The  operator,  on  being  asked  how  he  expected  to  load  logs  with  such 
equipment,  replied :  "  Oh,  all  our  logs  are  not  as  big  as  this  one ;  the 
boys  usually  breast  them  up."  If  this  man  had  had  a  dray  or  go- 
devil,  a  swamp  hook,  cant  hook,  and  loading  line,  with  a  skidway 
close  by  on  the  main  road,  his  teamster  could  have  loaded  this  log 
on  the  dray,  hauled  it  to  the  skidway  with  the  other  logs  in  the  tree, 
and  loaded  two  logs  on  the  truck  very  easily.  The  hauling  team 
could  have  made  six  trips  a  day  instead  of  two,  and  the  loading  and 
hauling  would  have  cost  $1.80  per  1,000  instead  of  $9. 


48  BULLETIN   *718,   U.   &.   DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

In  practice  it  invariably  happens  that  a  small-mill  operator  who 
watches  this  part  of  the  work  carefully  makes  a  success  of  his  busi- 
ness. The  average  operator  usually  lets  the  job  by  contract  to  inex- 
perienced men  at  twice  what  it  could  be,  or  ought  to  be,  clone  for,  in 
order  to  be  rid  of  it.  At  a  conservative  estimate  the  logging  to  small 
mills  costs  $1.50  to  $2.50  per  1,000  more  than  it  ought  to  cost.  This 
unnecessary  expense  swallows  up  the  greater  portion  of  the  profits 
that  can  be  made  in  operating  a  small  mill.  Misdirected  energy  in 
this  line  means  a  loss  to  the  operator  which  can  not  be  made  up. 

CHUTES, 

When  the  country  to  be  logged  is  split  up  into  narrow  canyons  or 
gulches  and  is  not  too  steep,  chute  logging  can  be  carried  on  with 
more  or  less  success.  When  the  chute  has  a  heavy  grade  and  the  logs 
attain  a  high  velocity  at  the  landing,  the  loss  in  breakage  is  too  heavy 
to  justify  this  method  of  handling  timber.  In  fact,  chute  logging 
is  most  successful  where  the  grade  is  so  light  that  horses  are  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  logs  moving.  Twenty  or  more  logs  dogged  in  a 
string  propelled  by  horsepower  can  be  taken  over  a  chute  rather 
cheaply. 

If  the  distance  to  "  chute  "  exceeds  a  mile,  beats  should  be  laid  off 
in  one-fourth  mile  sections,  with  a  man  and  team  to  keep  each  one 
clear.  In  small  operations,  of  course,  one  man  and  team  or  one 
horse  and  man  are  enough.  In  addition,  a  team  or  single  horse  is 
needed  to  keep  clear  the  point  where  the  logs  are  being  delivered  to 
the  chute. 

When  the  grade  is  heavy,  soft  steel  goosenecks  are  used  to  check 
the  speed  of  the  logs,  and  the  delivery  end  of  the  chute  is  elevated 
in  order  to  insure  that  the  logs  will  fall  flat  instead  of  striking  "  end 
on."  Logs  handled  in  this  way  are  generally  split  in  the  end  and 
badly  bruised  up,  even  when  they  are  landed  in  water. 

Chutes  are  usually  built  of  20-foot  logs  laid  two  abreast  and  hewed 
trough-shaped  by  cutting  away  the  inner  faces.  The  logs  are  drift 
bolted  to  bed  pieces  that  are  sunk  firmly  in  the  ground,  12  to  14  feet 
apart.  The  average  size  of  chuie  timbers  is  14  inches  at  the  top. 
The  average  cost  of  chute  construction  is  $3  per  rod. 

A  chute  in  which  logs  run  by  gravity  is  called  a  running  chute, 
and  one  with  which  horses  are  used,  a  trailing  chute.  Sometimes 
logs  will  run  on  one  part  of  a  chute  and  are  trailed  on  other  parts. 
Heavy  logs  will  run  on  lighter  grades  than  small,  light,  short  logs. 
Trailing  chutes  should  be  greased,  or,  if  the  weather  permits,  iced. 

The  main  trouble  about  chutes  is  that  very  often  they  are  not  con- 
structed properly,  particularly  chutes  built  around  sharp  curves.  A 
running  chute  should  never  be  built  with  a  bad  curve.  It  costs  too 
much  to  keep  in  repair,  and  logs  will  be  constantly  jumping.  In 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  49 

small  jobs  when  the  ground  is  adapted  to  chutes  and  the  operator  has 
some  experience  in  chute  building,  their  use  is  strongly  recommended. 
The  cost  will  not  be  more  than  that  of  a  good  road,  which  few  oper- 
ators build.  Moreover,  the  cost  of  trying  to  get  his  logs  to  his  mill 
over  a  bad  road  will  be  avoided.  Small  operators  seldom  cut  logs  over 
18  feet  in  length,  and  these  can  be  taken  around  a  pretty  sharp  curve 
on  a  trailing  chute.  The  operator  must,  however,  build  a  good  chute, 
or  else  he  can  not  use  it. 

Big  logs  should  be  peeled  or  rossed  for  chuting.  The  average 
cost  of  trailing  logs  in  a  chute  varies  from  50  cents  to  $1.50  per  1,000. 
Well-built  chutes  will,  if  kept  in  repair,  last  from  7  to  10  years.  If 
not  needed  for  that  period  the  timbers  can  be  taken  up,  and  after  all 
the  spikes  are  removed  can  be  cut  into  lumber.  The  usual  grades 
for  long  logs  are — 

Per  cent. 
Dry   chute 15  to  20 

Ice  chutes 4  to   8 

Water  chutes 3  to    6 

For  short  logs,  ties,  mine  props,  and  field  posts  the  grades  are — 

Per  cent. 

Dry    chute 25  to  35 

Iced   chutes 8  to  12 

Water   chutes 5  to   8 

Hardwoods  are  better  than  conifers  for  chute  ccnstruction.  The 
grade  of  inlet  must  be  steep,  and  the  outlet  in  running  chutes  should 
be  into  a  pond  of  water  of  sufficient  depth  to  keep  the  logs  from 
striking  bottom. 

.    LOADING  LOGS. 

It  is  important  to  load  in  the  right  way,  for  every  time  a  log  is 
moved  unnecessarily  there  is  a  cut  in  the  operator's  profit. 

Dig  a  hole  for  the  gin  pole  deep  enough  to  prevent  the  pole  from 
sliding  out  but  loose  enough  to  admit  of  the  pole  being  pushed  back 
a  few  inches  in  order  to  clear  the  logs  when  the  load  is  being  hauled 
away.  Make  the  gin  pole  fast  to  the  sway  bars  of  the  truck  or  sled 
with  a  short  chain  and  grab.  See  that  the  truck  or  sled  is  in  proper 
line  with  the  front  end  of  the  logs  to  be  loaded.  Set  up  the  skids 
with  the  ironed  tips  resting  on  the  bunks  or  sway  bars  and  (as  this 
is  addressed  to  portable  millmen)  use  a  crotch  line  with  light  swamp 
hooks  on  either  end.  Make  each  dog  fast  in  the  end  of  the  bunk 
or  in  the  side  of  the  sway  bar.  After  it  is  passed  round  the  log 
hitch  the  loading  line  on  the  whiffletree  or  equalizer,  start  the  team 
up  slowly,  and  see  that  the  log  is  coming  fairly  on  to  the  bunks  and 
not  faster  on  one  end  than  the  other.  Be  careful  that  one  end  does 
not  miss  the  bunk  and  fall  between  them  on  the  reach  or  hounds, 


50  BULLETIN    718,   U.    S.    DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

A  crotch  line  is  recommended  for  portable  mill  loggers  because  it 
is  much  safer  for  inexperienced  loaders,  although  slower  than  a 
single  line.  After  a  little  practice  in  the  use  of  cant  hooks,  however, 
a  greon  man  will  soon  learn  to  "  cut "  a  log  which  is  inclined  to  go 
endwise  on  the  skids  (cannon).  In  such  cases  the  loader  should  step 
in  front  of  the  lower  end  of  the  log  and  catch  it  smartly  with  his 
hook,  at  the  same  time  pulling  so  that  the  end  will  slide  forward 
on  the  skids.  If  he  happens  to  be  on  the  side  which  is  moving  too 
fast,  he  should  catch  the  log  smartly  from  behind  and  by  a  sudden 
pull  hold  that  end  while  the  other  or  slower  end  slides  forward. 
This  operation  requires  quickness  and  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the 
hook.  A  green  hand  is  likely  to  catch  his  hook  too  deep  in  the 
timber,  with  the  result  that  he  gets  a  severe  jolt  and  his  cant-hook 
stock  is  broken. 

A  loader  should  never  stand  behind  a  log  going  up  in  the  chain. 
When  a  log  is  safely  on  the  load  he  should  have  the  next  log  rolled 
down  to  the  skids,  help  to  pull  back  the  chain  far  enough  to  encircle 
the  log  and  to  reach  the  load,  and  hand  the  swamp  hook  to  the 
loader,  who  makes  it  fast  to  a  log  already  on  the  load,  usually  the 
log  in  front  of  the  one  beside  which  he  intends  the  log  in  the  chain 
to  lie.  The  top  loader  grabs  the  log  with  his  cant  hook,  after  fasten- 
ing his  swamp  hook  in  the  log  to  prevent  it  rolling  over  when  the 
team  pulls  on  the  chain,  yells  to  the  teamster  to  go  ahead,  and  keeps 
clear  of  the  log  as  it  rolls  into  its  place.  A  good  top  loader  figures 
ahead  on  where  he  intends  to  place  his  logs  in  order  that  the  load 
will  balance.  If  one  side  *of  a  sled  load  of  logs  is  heavier  than  the 
other,  the  load  usually  becomes  "  bunk  bound "  and  will  not  steer 
properly,  and  naturally,  if  a  truck  is  not  loaded  properly,  it  will 
tip  over. 

Corner  binds  and  binding  chains  should  be  used  in  hauling  logs 
on  a  truck  or  sled.  Binding  or  spring  poles  are  not  reliable,  besides 
being  dangerous  if  they  happen  to  slip.  Good  stout  block  brakes 
are  a  requisite  on  steep  hills.  These  should  be  secure  enough  to  en- 
able a  logger  to  stop  "  dead  "  on  the  steepest  hill — rough  locking  the 
hind  wheels  with  stout  chains  if  necessary.  The  neck  yoke,  breast 
straps,  and  name  straps  should  be  carefully  looked  over  every  day 
and  kept  in  proper  shape. 

The  cross  haul  for  the  team  should  be  brushed  out  and  the  ground 
leveled  off  so  that  the  team  can  haul  to  good  advantage  and  turn 
around  easily.  Sometimes  when  a  block  is  used  on  the  gin  pole  the 
loading  team  pulls  parallel  to  the  load  and  along  the  road.  If  this 
can  be  done,  the  crosshaul  can  be  dispensed  with. 

When  a  load  is  taken  off  the  front  of  a  skid  way  the  remaining 
logs  should  be  rolled  down  to  "the  front,  in  order  to  make  room  for 
more  logs  on  the  end.  It  does  not  pay  to  deck  (pile  up)  logs  in  a 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIK   EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  51 

small  operation.  Medium-sized  logs  can  be  decked  a  couple  of  tiers 
high  in  spiked  skids  quite  easily,  thereby  saving  the  expense  of  a 
decking  team  and  teamster. 

If  you  are  hauling  on  a  snow  or  ice  road,  keep  the  space  in  front 
of  the  skidways  on  which  the  sled  stands  free  from  bark  and  chips. 
Figure  on  loading  the  heaviest  logs  on  the  bottom  of  the  tier.  If  the 
sawyers  leave  any  knots  on  the  logs,  trim  them  off  close  to  the  bole 
and  see  that  the  binding  chains  or  toggles  are  grabbed  on  the  un- 
loading side.  If  the  sawyers  have  left  a  "  chip  "  on  the  bottom  of 
the  cut,  set  the  "  Samson  "  (which  should  be  higher  than  the  log) 
on  the  near  side,  drop  the  swamp  hook  over  the  far  side  of  the  log, 
and  fasten  in  the  dog.  Make  the  swamp-hook  chain  or  logging  chain 
fast  with  a  half  hitch  around  the  top  of  the  "  Samson,"  and  hitch 
the  team  to  the  chain.  One  pull  from  the  team  usually  breaks  the 
chip  or  turns  the  log  over  so  that  the  teamster  can  reach  it  with  his 
ax.  If  the  teamster  is  not  equipped  with  a  swamp  hook  and  does  not 
understand  how  to  use  a  "  Samson,"  he  can  take  a  "  roll "  on  the  log 
with  his  log  chain,  with  the  draft  down  low  on  the  side  of  the  log 
opposite  his  team,  and  if  the  log  is  not  too  heavy  and  the  chip  too 
large,  can  lift  the  log  far  enough  with  his  team  to  enable  him  to  cut 
the  chip  with  his  ax  and  roll  the  log  on  to  the  dray. 

The  jackknife  dray  has  a  roller  in  front  set  on  gudgeons  in  the 
nose  of  the  runners.  A  stout  bunk  armed  with  spikes  connects  the 
runners.  If  the  dray  strikes  any  obstruction  it  will  "jackknife"  or 
partially  fold,  hence  the-  name. 

SCALING. 

There  are  many  rules  for  the  measurement  of  saw  logs.  None  of 
them,  however,  is  mathematically  exact,  simply  because  a  saw  log 
is  not  a  mathematical  figure.  Also,  the  unit  of  sawed  lumber  is 
144  square  inches,  or  a  piece  of  board  12  inches  square  and  1  inch 
thick.  Any  rule  purporting  to  give  the  actual  amount  of  board 
feet  which  a  log  of  a  given  diameter  will  saw  out  is,  therefore,  only 
an  approximation. 

The  Decimal  C  rule  is  the  one  adopted  by  the  Forest  Service  for 
scaling  Government  timber.  This  rule  is  made  by  dropping  the 
unit  figures  of  the  Scribner  rule  and  accepting  the  nearest  tens  as 
correct  values.  The  contents  of  logs  as  given  by  the  Scribner  rule 
were  found  by  drawing  diagrams  outlining  the  smaller  end  sections 
of  logs  and  computing  the  board  feet  in  the  boards  that  could  be 
sawed  from  them. 

The  Doyle  rule,  which  is  extensively  used,  is  based  on  the  follow- 
ing formula:  Deduct  4  inches  from  the  diameter  of  the  log,  square 
one-fourth  of  the  remainder,  and  multiply  by  the  length  of  the  log 
in  feet.  This  gives  the  approximate  contents  in  board  feet,  Another 


52  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE. 

rule  of  more  ancient  origin,  which  gives  the  same  results,  is  to  deduct 
4  inches  from  the  diameter  of  the  log  as  an  allowance  for  sawdust 
and  slabs,  then  multiply  the  remainder  by  half  itself,  and  the  product 
by  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet,  and  divide  by  8.  The  quotient  will 
be  the  number  of  square  feet  contained  in  the  log.  Still  another  giv- 
ing the  same  contents  is,  deduct  4  inches  and  square  the  remainder, 
adding  to  or  deducting  for  the  aliquot  parts  of  a  longer  or  shorter 
log. 

The  Doyle  rule  gives  less  values  in  board  feet  for  16-foot  logs  up 
to  28  inches  in  diameter  than  the  Scribner  or  the  Decimal  C  rule, 
and  above  that  diameter  gives  greater  values.  Between  22  and  28 
inches  in  diameter,  however,  there  is  only  a  slight  difference  between 
the  two  rules.  The  14  single  logs  ranging  from  8  to  21  inches  in 
diameter  scale  by  the  latter  rule  12  per  cent  more  than  with  the  Doyle, 
though  logs  scaled  by  the  Decimal  C  rule  overrun  the  log  scale  by 
an  average  of  10  per  cent  when  manufactured  into  lumber. 

The  requirements  of  the  Forest  Service  call  for  the  measurement  of 
sound  material  in  the  log  irrespective  of  grade.  Allowance  is  made 
for  bad  defects,  such  as  rot,  shake,  check,  cat  face,  crooks,  worm- 
holes,  etc.,  or  a  serious  combination  of  one  or  more  such  defects  in 
one  log.  In  timber  of  high  commercial  value,  logs  are  classed  as 
cull  that  have  two-thirds  of  the  gross  scale  defective:  in  the  case  of 
inferior  species,  such  as  fir,  lodgepole,  and  balsam,  one-half  of  the 
gross  scale. 

It  very  often  happens  that  timber  or  logs  containing  only  one-third 
of  the  gross  scale  in  merchantable  lumber  will  not  pay  the  cost  of 
handling  unless  the  lumber  obtained  is  high  grade.  In  such  cases 
the  sealer  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  grades  and  be  qualified  to 
differentiate  between  a  log  that  pays  for  merchandizing  and  one 
that  does  not. 

The  only  true  analysis  of  what  a  defective  log  will  scale  is  found 
by  seeing  it  opened  up  in  the  mill.  A  sealer's  ability  to  make  proper 
allowance  for  defect  hinges  on  his  experience  in  this  particular  re- 
spect. Defects  such  as  large  loose  or  unsound  knots,  an  occasional 
knot  hole,  a  great  deal  of  pitch  and  pockets,  some  red  rot  and  bad 
season  checks,  large  wormholes,  and  any  amount  of  blue  stain,  unless 
combined  in  one  log,  affect  merely  the  quality  or  grade  and  not 
the  quantity  of  merchantable  lumber  produced  from  the  log.  They 
are  therefore  not  recognized  as  justifying  a  sealer  in  discounting 
the  gross  scale  of  a  log. 

The  fact  of  logs  overrunning  the  log  scale — that  is,  cutting  more 
board  feet  than  is  shown  on  the  Decimal  C  rule — should  not  be 
considered  by  a  sealer  in  making  allowance  for  defect.  This  matter 
of  overrun  is,  in  Forest  Service  sales,  taken  into  account  when  ap- 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  53 

praising  the  timber  and  establishing  the  stumpage  price,  and  is  not 
relevant  to  scaling. 

The  following  grading  rules  for  western  yellow  pine  logs  are 
suggested  by  the  Forest  Service  for  use  in  eastern  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington, and  could  be  profitably  used  by  portable  mill  operators  in 
any  section  of  the  country : 

No.  1  clear  logs  shall  be  22  inches  or  over  in  diameter  inside  the  bark  at  the 
small  end  and  not  less  than  10  feet  long.  They  shall  be  reasonably  straight 
grained,  practically  surface  clear,  and  with  not  less  than  25  per  cent  of  their 
scaled  contents  capable  of  being  cut  into  C  select  and  better. 

No.  2  shop  logs  shall  be  18  inches  and  over  in  diameter  inside  the  bark  at  th.e 
small  end,  not  less  than  8  feet  long,  and  with  not  less  than  30  per  cent  of  their 
scaled  contents  capable  of  being  cut  into  No.  2  shop  or  better. 

No.  3  rough  logs  shall  be  6  inches  and  over  in  diameter  inside  the  bark  at  the 
small  end  and  not  less  than  8  feet  long,  and  having  defects  which  unfit  them 
for  classification  in  the  two  above  grades. 

C  select  grade  means  lumber  4  inches  wide  or  wider.  Knots,  blue 
stain,  some  pitch  or  season  checks  are  admissible.  A  4-inch  or  6-inch 
piece  would  show  light  traces  of  pitch  or  season  checks.  Heavier 
indications  of  pitch  and  season"  checks  are  permissible  in  wider 
boards,  but  should  not  be  scattered  all  over  the  board.  Medium  blue 
stain,  covering  one-third  of  the  face,  if  not  in  combination  with  other 
defects,  is  admissible. 

No.  2  shop  means  a  grade  of  lumber  valued  for  cutting  purposes 
only.  The  grade  of  No.  2  door  cuttings  will  admit  of  one  defect  in 
one  piece.  This  may  be  a  small  sound  knot  not  to  exceed  five-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  or  a  light-blue  stain  which  does  not  extend 
over  more  than  one-half  the  surface  of  the  piece  on  one  side,  or,  in  the 
absence  of  all  other  defects,  one  small  season  check  not  to  exceed  8 
inches  in  length  and  showing  on  one  side  of  the  piece  only.  Each 
plank  of  No.  2  shop  should  contain  either  one  of  the  following:  At 
least  25  per  cent  of  No.  1  door  cuttings  or  not  less  than  33^  per  cent 
of  No.  1  and  No.  2  door  cuttings  combined. 

Rough  logs  of  the  grade  lower  than  Nos.  1  and  2  consist  of  lum- 
ber the  general  appearance  of  which  is  coarse,  admitting  many  de- 
fects in  inch  lumber  and  all  defects  common  to  dimension  lumber 
that  do  not  materially  impair  the  strength  of  the  piece. 

LOGGING  OUTFIT. 

Following  is  a  logging  outfit  for  class  A  mills  and  its  cost: 

4  teams  and  harness,  at  $400 $1,  600 

Saws,  axes,  wredges,  cant  hooks,  chains,  and  blacksmith  outfit 150 

2  logging  trucks . 250 

2  lumber  wagons 200 

Camp  cook  outfit 100 

Sleeping  camp 50 

Lubricating  oil  and  kerosene :. 20 

Total 2,  370 


54  BULLETIN   718,  U.   S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  following  equipment  would  be  suitable  for  a  class  B  mill: 

5  teams  and  harness,  at  $400 $2,000 

Saws,  axes,  wedges,  cant  hooks,  chains,  and  blacksmith  outfit 150 

2  logging  trucks 250 

2  lumber  wagons 200 

2    drays 10 

Cook  camp  outfit 150 

Sleeping  camp 70 

Lubricating  oil  and  kerosene 20 


Total •_ 2,  850 

Below  is  given  an  outfit  of  blacksmith  tools  for  small  loggers  and 
others  doing  their  own  work: 

Coal  and  borax. 

60-pound  anvil,  with  hardies. 

Leg  vice,  35-pound,  opens  4  inches. 

Lever  forge,  60-pound. 

Upright  drill. 

Round  shank  drill. 

6  taps  and  3  set  dies. 

Cold  chisel. 

Assorted  punches. 

Tongs,  pincers,  and  rasps. 

Farrier's  knife. 

Shoeing  and  turning  hammer. 

Hoof  parer,  horseshoes  and  nails,  calks,  and  sling  for  shoeing  unruly  horses. 

The  following  constitute  logging  accessories : 

Logging  trucks,  Montana,  $130  each. 

Lindsay  self-loading  skidder,  2  wheels,  24  inches  diameter ;  5-inch  tire,  $30 ; 

8-inch  tire,  $35;  10-inch  tire,  $40. 
Four-wheel  logging  trucks :  Weight,  1,200  pounds,  capacity,  4,000  pounds ; 1 

weight,  1,800  pounds,  capacity,  10,000  pounds. 
Large-size  cant  hooks,  5^-foot  stock. 
Swamp  hooks,  steel. 
Skidding  tongs,  opening  24  to  30  jnches. 

Emery  or  carborundum  wheels,  10  inches  diameter  and  1  inch  thick. 
Runners,  with  McLaren's  casting,  finished  and  ironed,  set  of  four. 
Bolster  plates,  four  to  a  sled. 
Gudgeon  pins. 
King  bolt. 
Pole  caps. 
Tote  sleds. 

Logging  sleds  (no  bunks),  complete.     (Shipping  weight,  2,400  pounds.) 
Big  wheels,  7  to  10  feet  high. 

Lumber  buggies,  capacity,  2,000  pounds ;  weight,  300  pounds. 
Dump  carts,  2-horse,  weight,  1,900  pounds ;  1-horse,  weight,  1,300  pounds. 
Two-horse  wagons  with  box,  weight,  1,350  pounds. 
Boot  calks  for  driving  boots. 
Square  shovels,  D  handles,  38  inches  over  all. 

1  This  rig  includes  whiffletrees,  evener,  stay  chains,  neck  yoke,  or  tongue  chains.     Brake, 
$10  extra.     Two-wheel  carts  with  straight  or  arched  axle. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  55 

Round  shovels,  D  handles,  38  inches  over  all. 

Shovels,  long-handled,  square  pointed,  61  inches  over  all ;  round  pointed,  61 

inches  over  all. 

Spades,  D-handles,  39  inches  over  all. 
Snow  shovels. 

Earth  augers  for  holes  5  to  8  inches  diameter ;  8  to  14  inches  diameter. 
Posthole  tamping  bars. 
Hayforks,  4  tines. 
Manure  forks. 
Manure  D-handled  forks. 
Railroad  and  grading  plows. 
Wheel  scrapers. 
Slushers. 

Slushers,  double  bottom. 
Wheelbarrows,  tubular  steel  frames. 
Wheelbarrows,  wood. 

Dynamite,  40  per  cent  (20  cents  per  pound  in  25  to  50  pound  boxes). 
Caps,  per  1,000,  No.  3. 

Safety  fuse,  50  feet  in  coil,  2  coils  in  a  package,  per  1,000  feet,  single  tape. 
Blasting  powder,  25-pound  sheet-iron  kegs,  black  F. 
Blasting  machine,  size  13  by  9  by  6f  inches,  weight  35  pounds,  capacity  1 

to  30  holes. 

Following  is  a  list  of  tools  and  stores : 

Pickarooms  or  hookaroons :  Axe-handle  shape ;  straight  handle. 

Pike  pol-es  with  straight  pikes,  14  to  16  feet. 

Pike  poles  with  hook  and  straight  pike. 

Straight  pike  only. 

Pike  with  hook. 

Adz  handles. 

Spike  maul  handles. 

Riveting  and  farrier's  handles. 

Round  chain  hooks. 

Corner  bind  or  fid  hooks,  flat. 

Half  round  fid  hooks. 

Boom  chains  made  to  order. 

Log  jammer  blocks. 

Loading  blocks. 

Skidding  tongs. 

Rollway  breaking  hooks. 

Loading  hooks. 

Swamp  hooks,  steel. 

Cant  hooks,  iron  clasp. 

Cant  hooks,  steel  clasp. 

Peavies,  malleable  socket. 

Peavies,  steel  socket. 

Cant  hook  and  peavy  handles. 

Cant  hook  and  peavy  hooks. 

Top  loader,  heavy  steel. 

Peavy  sockets. 

Cant-hook  clasps. 

Toe  rings,  iron. 

Toe  rings,  steel. 

Hook  and  peavy  bolts. 


56  BULLETIN   718,  TT.   B.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Ax  handles,  single  bitted. 
Ax  handles,  double  bitted. 
Axes,  single  bitted. 
Axes,  double  bitted. 
Broadax  handles,  Michigan. 
Pick  and  mattock  handles. 
Maul  handles. 
Broadaxes. 
Driving  batteaux. 
Paddles. 
Anchors. 
Road  rutters. 
Badger  road  rutter. 

Snowplow  and  road  rutter  (Eau  Claire). 

Logging  sled  stock:   Pole,   rock  elm;   white  oak.     Finished   and  iron  pole, 
and  roll,  elm ;  roll,  oak. 


APPENDIX. 


WATER. 


One  gallon  of  water  weighs  8J  pounds  and  contains  231  cubic 
inches.  One  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  7^  gallons,  1,728  cubic 
inches,  and  weighs  62^  pounds.  One  cubic  inch  of  water  evaporated 
under  atmospheric  pressure  is  converted  into  approximately  one 
cubic  foot  of  steam.  The  height  of  a  column  of  fresh  water  equal 
to  1  pound  pressure  per  square  inch  is  2.31  feet.  In  usual  computa- 
tion this  is  taken  at  2  feet. 

To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  a  column  of 
water,  multiply  the  height  of  the  column  in  feet  by  0.434.  Approxi- 
mately every  foot  elevation  is  equal  to  one-half  pound  pressure  per 
square  inch,  allowing  for  friction. 

Pressure  of  water  for  each  foot  in  height. 


Feet  in  height. 

Pounds 
per 
square 
inch. 

Feet  in  height. 

Pounds 
per 

square 
inch. 

Feet  in  height. 

Pounds 
per 
square 
inch. 

I 

0  43 

15 

6  49 

50 

21  65 

2 

.86 

20     

8.66 

70  

30.32 

5 

2  16 

25 

10  S2 

80 

34.65 

10 

4  33 

49                

17.32 

100  

43.31 

To  find  the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute  necessary  to  discharge  a 
given  volume  of  water  in  a  given  time,  multiply  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  water  by  144  and  divide  the  product  by  the  area  of  the  pipe 
in  inches.  Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity 
four  times.  A  miner's  inch  of  water  is  approximately  equal  to  a  sup- 
ply of  12  gallons  a  minute. 

Measurement  of  an  open  stream  'by  velocity  and  cross  section. — 
Measure  the  depth  of  the  water  at  from  6  to  12  points  across  the 
stream  at  equal  distances  between.  Add  all  the  depths  in  feet  and 
inches  together  and  divide  by  the  number  of  measurements.  This 
will  give  the  average  depth,  which  when  multiplied  by  the  width  will 
give  the  area  of  the  cross  section. 

The  velocity  of  the  stream  can  be  found  by  laying  off  100  feet 
along  the  bank  and  throwing  a  float  into  the  middle,  noting  the 
time  taken  in  passing  over  100  feet.  Do  this  a  number  of  times  and 
take  the  average.  Then  divide  this  distance  by  the  time,  and  it  will 
be  the  velocity  at  the  surface.  As  the  top  of  the  stream  flows  faster 

57 


58  BULLETIN    718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

than  the  bottom  or  sides  the  average  velocity  being  approximately 
83  per  cent  of  the  surface  velocity  at  the  middle,  it  is  recommended  to 
measure  a  distance  of  120  feet  for  the  float  to  run  and  reckon  it 
as  100. 

Multiply  the  area  of  the  cross  section  by  the  velocity  of  the  stream 
in  feet  per  minute,  and  the  result  will  be  within  12  per  cent  of  the 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

To  compute  the  capacity  of  pumping  engines. — Multiply  the  area 
of  the  water  piston  in  inches  by  the  distance  it  travels  in  inches  in  a 
given  time.  Deduct  3  per  cent  for  slip  and  rod  displacement.  The 
product  divided  by  231  gives  the  number  of  gallons  in  the  time 
named. 

Barometric  pressure  varies  at  different  altitudes  with  an  equiva- 
lent variation  in  the  vertical  suction  lift  of  the  pumps. 

An  "  atmosphere,"  14T7o  pounds,  at  62°  F.  is  equal  to  a  column  of 
mercury  29.9  inches  high,  or  a  column  of  water  33r%  feet  high. 

Water  at  high  temperature  can  not  be  raised  any  considerable 
distance  by  suction,  as  the  vapor  discharged  from  the  water  follows 
the  receding  piston  of  the  pump  and  resists  the  entrance  of  the 
water;  consequently,  to  pump  hot  water  always  have  the  supply 
above  the  pump  so  that  it  will  be  supplied  from  a  head. 

STEAM. 

Under  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  of  14.7  pounds  per  square 
inch,  water  boils  at  212°  F.,  passing  off  as  steam,  the  temperature 
at  which  it  boils  varying  with  the  variation  in  the  pressure.  Steam 
rising  from  water  at  its  boiling  point  (212°  F.)  has  a  pressure  equal 
to  the  atmosphere,  viz,  14.7  pounds  to  the  square  inch  at  sea  level. 
To  evaporate  1  cubic  foot  of  water  requires  the  consumption  of  7-J 
pounds  ordinary  coal,  or  about  1  pound  of  coal  or  2}  pounds  wood 
to  1  gallon  of  water.  Steam  is  transparent,  colorless,  dry,  and 
invisible  except  when  partly  condensed,  when  the  mist  makes  it 
visible.  Dry  steam  does  not  contain  any  free  moisture;  wet  steam 
contains  free  moisture  in  the  form  of  spray  or  mist  and  has  the  same 
temperature  as  dry  saturated  steam  of  the  same  pressure.  Saturated 
steam  is  steam  in  its  normal  state,  that  is,  steam  whose  temperature 
is  that  due  its  pressure,  by  which  is  meant  steam  at  th^  same  tem- 
perature as  that  of  the  water  from  which  it  was  generated  and  upon 
which  it  rests.  Superheated  steam  is  steam  at  a  temperature  above 
that  due  its  pressure  after  leaving  the  liquid  from  which  it  is 
generated. 

One  cubic  inch  of  water  evaporated  into  steam  at  212°  F.  becomes 
1,645  cubic  inches,  that  is,  nearly  1  cubic  foot.  Water  introduced 
into  superheated  steam  will  be  vaporized  until  the  steam  becomes 
saturated  and  its  temperature  becomes  that  due  its  pressure.  Cold 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  59 

water  or  water  at  a  lower  temperature  than  that  of  the  steam,  when 
introduced  into  saturated  steam,  will  condense  some  of  it,  thus  lower- 
ing both  the  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  rest  until  the  tempera- 
ture again  equals  that  due  its  pressure.  The  speed  of  steam  for 
designers  of  steam  piping  is  about  a  mile  and  one-half  per  minute 
and  sometimes  much  more. 

There  is  a  saving  of  approximately  1  per  cent  in  fuel  burned  for 
every  11°  that  feed  water  is  warmed  before  being  run  into  the  boiler. 
If  sufficient  exhaust  steam  is  available  and  cold  water  at  70°  is 
raised  to  210°  the  saving  in  fuel  will  approximate  12  per  cent. 

FUEL. 

One  cord  of  air-dried  hickory  or  hard  maple  weighs  about  4,500 
pounds  and  is  equal  as  fuel  to  2,000  pounds  coal. 

One  cord  of  air-dried  white  oak  weighs  about  3,850  pounds  and  is 
equal  to  1,715  pounds  coal. 

One  cord  of  air-dried  red  oak  or  black  oak  weighs  3,250  pounds 
and  is  equal  to  1,450  pounds  coal. 

One  cord  air-dried  poplar,  chestnut,  or  elm  weighs  2,350  pounds 
and  is  equal  to  1,050  pounds  coal. 

One  .cord  of  air-dried  yellow,  white,  or  lodgepole  pine  weighs 
2,000  pounds  and  is  equal  to  625  pounds  coal. 

From  the  foregoing  data  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  2J  pounds  dry 
wood  is  equal  to  1  pound  average-quality  soft  coal,  and  that  the  fuel 
value  of  the  same  weight  of  different  woods  is  very  nearly  the  same. 
That  is,  1  pound  of  hickory  is  worth  no  more  for  fuel  than  a  pound 
of  pine,  assuming  both  to  be  dry.  It  is  important  that  the  wood  be 
dry,  as  each  10  per  cent  of  water  or  moisture  will  detract  12  per  cent 
from  its  value  as  fuel.  This  fact  should  be  noted  by  small  mill 
operators  who  use  green  slabs  for  fuel  and  sell  the  dry  ones.  In  one 
case  observed  by  the  writer  the  dry  slabs  were  sold  in  the  mill  yard 
at  1  cent  each  and  the  green  ones  used  to  fire  with.  During  the  after- 
noon the  mill  stopped  four  times,  averaging  15  minutes  each  time,  in 
order  to  get  sufficient  steam  to  run  the  saw,  and  then  the  sawyer  had 
to  "  back  up  "  the  carriage  several  times  to  enable  the  saw  to  gather 
sufficient  speed  to  cut  a  foot  or  two  farther  into  the  log. 

Evaporative  power  of  1  pound  of  various  fuels  at  atmospheric 
pressure  (14.7  pounds).— I  pound  good  coal  will  evaporate  10  pounds 
water;  1  pound  crude  petroleum  will  evaporate  16  pounds  water;  1 
pound  natural  gas  (25  cubic  feet)  will  evaporate  20  pounds  water. 

WATER  WHEELS. 

The  horse  power  of  falling  water  is  expressed  in  the  formula 
T/rV^X62  5 
— 33  QQQ      '  wnich  means  that  the  volume  of  discharge  in  cubic  feet 


60 


BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


per  minute  multiplied  by  the  height  of  fall  in  feet,  multiplied  by  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  and  divided  by  33,000,  gives  the  horse 
power  per  minute. 

Amount  of  water  required  to  develop  a  given  horsepoircr  with  a  given  available 

effective  head.1 


Effective  head. 

Flow  of  water  per  minute. 

10  H.  P. 

20  H.  P. 

30  H.  P. 

40  11.  P. 

50  feet 

CuUcfeet. 
125 
104 
88 
77 
70 
63 

Cubicfeet. 
250 
208 
177 
155 
140 
125 

Cubicfeet. 
375 
312 
266 
232 
210 
186 

Cubicfeet. 
500 
416 
355 
311 
280 
248 

GOfeet      

70  feet 

80  feet 

90  feat 

100  feet 

1  Horsepower  based  In  85  per  cent  efficiency  of  the  wheel. 

Water  wheels  are  built  either  overshot,  breast,  undershot,  or  tur- 
bines. 

Overshot  wheel. — The  effective  power  is  60  to  75  per  cent  of  possible 
power.  The  proper  velocity  of  the  circumference  is  5  feet  per  second 
and  is  equal  to  approximately  one-half  the  velocity  of  the  water. 
The  water  velocity  must  be  greater  than  the  rim  of  the  wheel.  In 
falls  pf  from  20  to  40  feet  in  height  the  overshot  wheel  is  mora 
effective  than  a  turbine.  The  buckets  should  have  a  capacity  three 
times  as  large  as  the  volume  of  water  actually  carried,  should  have 
holes  in  the  bottom  in  order  to  allow  the  escape  of  air,  and  have  a 
depth  of  from  12  to  14  inches  and  be  12  inches  apart  at  least  from 
centers.  The  speed  necessary  to  run  a  sawmill  with  this  power  is 
obtained  by  countershaft  or  gears. 

Breast  wheel. — The  water  acts  by  weight  and  impact,  dropping 
vertically  into  the  buckets.  The  efficiency  varies  from  45  to  65  per 
cent  of  possible  power  and  works  best  in  falls  from  8  to  16  feet  hav- 
ing a  discharge  from  20  to  80  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  speed  of 
the  wheel  should  be  such  as  to  fill  the  buckets  one-half  their  capacity 
each  revolution.  Other  forms  of  breast  wheel  are  called  "high 
breast,"  "  low  breast,"  and  "  flutter  "  wheels.  The  old  form  of  water 
wheel  had  radial  buckets,  but  the  modern  idea  is  in  favor  of  curved 
buckets  which  give  a  higher  efficiency. 

Undershot  wheel. — The  undershot  or  current  wheels  have  a  low 
efficiency  and  are  usually  anchored  in  rapid  streams  in  such  a  position 
as  to  be  safe  during  floods  or  high  water.  The  size  of  the  wheel 
varies.  It  usually  has  12  blades,  each  one  of  which  is  submerged 
as  it  passes  directly  under  the  axle.  All  of  those  wheels  have  become 
practically  obsolete  in  this  country. 

The  Pelton  turbine  is  a  type  of  axial  flow  impulse  turbine  in  which 
a  small  jet  issues  from  a  nozzle  and  strikes  on  a  series  of  cups  of 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  61 

the  shape  of  two  hemispheres  joined  together  at  the  center  by  a 
straight  thin  rib.  By  this  means  the  jet  is  split  and  returned  with- 
out serious  shock.  The  speed  of  the  rim  should  be  one-half  of  the 
jet  velocity  to  give  the  highest  efficiency.  The  water  works  by  im- 
pact and  pressure  and  not  by  weight,  as  in  vertical  wheels,  and 
greater  speed  is  directly  transmitted,  which  makes  a  turbine  wheel 
better  adapted  for  sawmill  purposes  than  a  vertical  one. 

The  advantage  of  water-power  mills,  is  less  operating  expense. 
The  disadvantages  are:  Water-power  mills  are  not  portable;  the 
source  of  power  not  uniform  or  continuous ;  not  as  capable  of  control 
as  steam ;  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  results  in  low  speed  and  low 
capacity. 

ENGINE  FRICTION  BRAKE. 

The  engine  friction  brake  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
power  which  an  engine  can  give  off  for  external  use.  It  is  usually 
applied  to  a  flywheel  and  will  give  results  if  the  belting  is  properly 
adjusted  and  the  shafting  in  line.  The  object  of  a  flywheel  is  to 
compensate  for  the  irregular  turning  movements,  and  to  prevent  the 
consequent  variation  of  speed  from  exceeding  certain  predetermined 
limits.  The  energy  stored  in  a  flywheel  varies  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity  and  directly  as  the  weight.  In  the  case  of  solid  cast  iron  of 
good  quality  the  velocity  of  the  rim  should  not  exceed  80  feet  per 
second  and  in  built-up  wheels  50  feet. 

STANDARD  HORSEPOWER. 

Standard  horsepower  is  33,000  foot-pounds.  A  foot-pound  is 
1  pound  lifted  1  foot  per  minute  or  any  equivalent  amount  of  force, 
such  as  one-half  pound  lifted  2  feet  or  12  pounds  lifted  1  inch  per 
minute.  The  horsepower  of  an  engine  may  be  determined  by  the 

2  x PLAN 
following  formula :    H.   P.=    09  n     — ,    When   P=mean  effective 

OO;UUU 

pressure,  L=length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  A^average  net  area  of 
piston,  and  N^number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  To  calculate 
horsepower,  multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square  inches  by  the 
speed  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute  and  divide  the  product  by 
33,000.  The  result  is  the  horsepower  value  of  1  pound  mean  effective 
pressure,  which,  if  multiplied  by  the  whole  mean  effective  pressure, 
will  give  the  indicated  horsepower.  The  net  effective  horsepower  is 
the  indicated  horsepower  less  the  friction  of  the  engine. 

GEARS. 

The  word  "  diameter  "  when  applied  to  gears  is  always  understood 
to  mean  the  pitch  diameters.  Diameter  pitch  of  the  gear  is  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  to  each  inch  of  its  pitch  diameter.  If  a  gear  has  40  teeth 


62 


BULLETIN   718,   U.   S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


and  the  pitch  diameter  is  4  inches,  the  diametral  pitch  is  10,  or, 
properly  speaking,  the  gear  is  10  diametral  pitch.  Circular  pitch  is 
the  distance  from  the  center  of  one  tooth  to  the  center  of  the  next 
tooth  measured  along  the  pitch  circle.  If  this  distance  is  one-half 
inch,  the  gear  is  said  to  be  one-half  circular  pitch. 

CALCULATING  THE  SPEED  OF  SAWS,  PULLEYS,  AND  DRUMS. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  A  30-inch  pulley,  making  180  revolutions  per  minute,  drives  a 
countershaft  with  a  12-inch  pulley.    What  is  the  speed  of  the  smaller 
pulley?     180X30^-12=450  r.  p.  m. 

2.  A  countershaft  is  to  make  450  r.  p.  m.,  driven  by  a  30-inch  pul- 
ley making  180  r.  p.  m.     What  will  be  the  diameter  of  the  counter- 
shaft pulley  ?     180X30-^-450=12-inch  pulley. 

3.  What  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  pulley  making  180  r.  p.  m.  to 
drive  a  12-inch  pulley  450  r.  p.  m.  ?     450Xl2-f-180=30-inch  pulley. 

SAW  GAUGE. 

Stubs's  standard  English  gauge  is  in  general  use  by  saw  manufac- 
turers in  this  country. 


No.  of  wire  gauge. 

Fractional  equivalents. 

Decjmal 
equiva- 
lent. 

No.l... 

i^-  inch  scant 

Inch. 
300 

No.  2  

T^  inch  full  

°84 

No  3 

259 

No.  4         

tf  inch  full 

238 

No.  5 

jZj  inch  full 

220 

No.  6... 

£i  inch  scant 

203 

No.  7 

H  inch  full 

180 

No.  8... 

^J  inch  scant 

165 

No.  9         

^j  inch  full 

148 

No.  10 

•/f  inch  scant 

134 

No.  11.. 

£  inch  scant 

120 

No.!? 

•^j  inch  scant 

109 

No.  13... 

•^j  inch  full 

095 

No.  14      

&  inch  full  . 

083 

No.  15 

072 

No.  16.... 

.jij.  inch  full 

065 

No.  17      

•jJj-  inch  scant 

058 

No.  18 

•fo  inch  full 

049 

MILL-MACHINERY  TERMS. 

Back  (of  a  saw  tooth) — The  upper  or  convex  part  of  a  saw  tooth.  The  lower 
or  concave  portion  is  called  the  face. 

Bit — A  tooth  used  in  an  inserted  tooth  saw.  The  knives  used  on  the  cutter 
heads  of  surfacing  machines  to  cut  a  tongue  and  groove. 

Board  mill — One  that  makes  a  specialty  of  1-inch  and  2-inch  lumber  as  com- 
pared to  a  timber  mill  which  cuts  lumber  of  greater  thickness. 

Bumper — A  device  placed  at  each  end  of  the  carriage  run  to  absorb  the  shock. 
It  is  usually  a  piston  fitted  with  a  cylinder  which  contains  live  steam  or  air, 
buffer. 


SMALL  SAWMILLS,  THEIH  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  63 

Cant  flipper — Two  or  more  horizontal  bars  placed  in  a  line  of  live  rolls;  the 

outer  ends  are  fastened  to  a  common  shaft  attached  to  the  piston  of  a  steam 

cylinder  and  the  near  ends  are  pivoted  to  a  firm  support.    On  elevating  the  outer 

ends,  cants  and  boards  are  transferred  to  a  temporary  storage  point  behind 

the  gang  resaw  or  edger. 
Carriage — A  frame  on  which  are  mounted  the  head  blocks,  set  work  and  other 

mechanism  for  holding  the  log  while  it  is  being  sawed  and  also  for  advancing 

the  log  toward  the  saw  line  after  a  cut  has  been  made.    The  carriage  frame 

is  mounted  on  trucks  which  travel  on  tracks.     The  carriage  is  moved  by 

steam,  feed  cable,  or  rack  and  pinion. 
Carriage  dog — A  steel  tooth,  several  of  \vhich  are  attached  to  a  carriage  knee 

and  operated  by  a  lever.    Their  object  is  to  hold  the  log  firmly  on  the  carriage. 
Carriage  feed — The  power  used  to  drive  the  carriage  back  and  forth.    It  may 

consist  of  a  rack  and  pinion,  a  cable  device,  or  a  large  cylinder  and  piston.    In 

large  mills  the  steam  cylinder  is  used  for  short  carriages  and  the  cable  for 

long  ones.    In  portable  mills  the  rack  and  pinion  or  cable  feed  is  used. 
Carriage  receder — A  device  on  the  under  side  of  a  carriage  which  automatically 

shunts  the  carriage  frame  on  its  axles  about  f  inch  away  from  the  saw  line. 

The  carriage  receder  is  used  only  in  band  mills ;  its  use  prevents  the  log  from 

hitting  the  band  saw. 
Chip  breaker — A  roller  or  bar  in  front  of  cutter  knives  on  a  planing  machine 

to  prevent  splinters  from  being  torn  from  the  face  of  the  board  as  it  is  being 

surfaced. 
Circular  gang  mill — A  machine  usually  used  to  cut  1-inch  flooring  strips  from 

4-inch  and  6-inch  cants. 

Circular  saw — One  having  cutting  teeth  on  the  circumference  of  the  plate. 
Dished  saw — Circular  saws  may  assume  a  shape  like  that  of  a  dish.    The  con- 
cave side  is  spoken  of  as  the  dished  side. 
Double-cutting  band  saw — Has  teeth  on  both  edges  and  cuts  on  both  forward 

and  backward  run. 

Double  mill — A  mill  having  two  head  saws. 
Edger — A  frame  supporting  an  arbor  on  which  are  mounted  several  saws,  feed 

rolls,  press  rolls,  and  power  transmission  gear.     It  is  used  to  square-edge 

lumber  and  also  to  rip  it. 

Edge  stacker — A  machine  which  piles  lumber  on  edge  on  dry-kiln  trucks. 
Feed  rolls — Live  rollers  with  a  smooth,  corrugated,  or  rough  surface  which 

holds  the  lumber  and  pushes  it  into  an  edger,  resaw,  planer,  etc. 
Felloe — One  of  the  segments  of  the  rim  of  a  wheel  between  the  spokes  and  the 

tire. 

Floorer — A  planer  and  matcher  combined  which  makes  flooring. 
Friction  nigger — A  long  lever  armed  with  teeth  used  to  turn  logs  on  a  carriage. 
Gang  edger — An  edger  that  has  fixed  saws. 
Gang  mill — A  machine  with  a  heavy  frame  supporting  a  sash  which  carries 

straight  saw  blades.    The  sash  runs  in  upright  slides  and  is  driven  from  below. 
Gang  saw — One  from  6  to  10  inches  wide  and  4  feet  in  length  with  teeth  on  one 

edge,  suspended  in  the  sasK  of  the  gang  and  cutting  on  the  down  strokes. 

Syn. — Gate  saw.  • 

Gauge — The  thickness  of  a  saw  blade. 
Head  block — The  part  of  a  carriage  which  holds  the  log  and  upon  which  it  rests. 

Each  head  block  consists  of  a  base,  a  knee,  a  taper  set,  and  a  rack  and  pinion 

gear. 
High  track  or  dollyway — An  elevated  tramway  which  runs  from  the  sawmill 

to  the  yard. 
Hog — A  refuse  grinder. 


64  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Hookaroon,  pickaroon — A  curved  pike  fitted  to  handle,  used  in  pulling  ties  or 

lumber  into  place. 

Horizontal  band  saw — A  band  saw  which  runs  horizontally. 
Husk — The  frame  supporting  the  arbor  and  other  parts  of  a  circular  saw. 
Inserted  tooth  circular  saw — One  in  which  removable  shanks  and  bits  are  in- 
serted in  the  sockets  on  the  rim. 

Jump  saw — One  that  can  be  raised  or  lowered  in  a  vertical  line. 
Jack  slip — The  trough  up  which  the  bull  chain  hauls  the  logs. 
Knee — The  part  of  a  carriage  holding  the  dogs  and  also  the  levers  operating 

both  the  dogs  and  the  taper  set. 
Log  deck — The  platform  in  a  sawmill  upon  which  logs  are  stored  preparatory  to 

placing  them  on  the  carriage. 
Log  lift — Cable  slings,  spaced  several  feet  apart — employed  to  lift  logs  from 

water. 
Loose — A  saw  is  said  to  be  loose  when  the  surface  falls  away  too  much  from  the 

straight  edge. 

Lumber  buggy — Dolly  lumber  truck. 
Lumber  jack — A  tripod  armed  with  a  blunt  spike  on  top,  used  as  a  fulcrum  to 

pass  the  lumber  up  to  the  lumber  piler. 
Matcher — A  -surfacing  machine  used  in  a  planing  mill  for  finishing  lumber  of 

average  width  and  thickness.     Syn. — Joiner. 

Out  of  round — A  circular  saw  is  said  to  be  out  of  round  when  it  is  not  a  per- 
fect circle. 

Overhead  trimmer — One  which  has  the  saws  hung  above  the  table. 
Pond  saw — A  power-driven  drag  saw  used  to  cut  logs  in  a  mill  pond. 
Press  roll — A  live  roll  which  holds  the  lumber  against  the  feed  roll  when  passing 

through  a  machine. 
Resaw — A  circular  or  band  mill  used  to  resaw  boards,  cants,  plank,  timbers. 

Syn. — Pony  band  mill  slab  saw. 
Rift  gang  mill — A  machine  for  cutting  edge-grained  flooring  strips  from  a  cant. 

It  consists  of  a  number  of  small  circulars  set  on  the  arbor  of  an  edger. 
Rock  saw — A  circular  saw  or  a  planer  head  which  removes  a  wide  kerf  on  the 

upper  surface  of  the  log  in  front  of  the  cut  of  the  head  saw. 
Rotary  veneer  machine — A  machine  that  cuts  or  peels  a  thin  endless  sheet  of 

wood  from  a  round  log. 
Sash  saw — An  upright  band  of  steel  toothed  on  one  edge  stretched  in  a  sash 

or  frame  and  used  singly  usually  in  a  water-power  mill  of  limited  capacity. 
Saw  arbor — The  shaft  and  bearings  on  which  a  circular  saw  is  mounted. 
Saw  guide — A  device  for  steadying  a  circular  or  band  saw. 
Screw  rollers — Rollers  with  a  coarse  thread  which  throw  the  board  or  slab  to 

one  side  as  the  piece  passes  over  it. 
Set  beam — A  shaft  on  a  sawmill  carriage  connected  with  the  set  works  bearing 

pinions,  one  of  which  meshes  into  a  rack  in  each  headblock  and  moves  the 

knees  back  or  forth  as  desired. 
Setting  block — A  small  steel  block  on  which  the  tooth  of  a  crosscut  saw  is 

placed  and  then  struck  with  a  hammer  to  give  it  the  proper  set. 
Set  works — The   mechanism   on   a  sawmill   carriage  by   means  of  which   the 

setter  advances  the  knees  and  the  log  toward  the  saw  line  after  a  piece  has 

been  cut  from  the  log. 
Set-works  scale — A  dial  on  a  sawmill  carriage  which  shows  the  distance  between 

the  saw  line  and  the  face  of  the  knee. 

Shank — Device  for  locking  inserted  teeth  into  the  sockets  of  a  circular  saw. 
Shotgun  feed — Steam  feed. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,   ETC.  65 

Single  band — A  band  saw  with  one  cutting  edge;  a  double  band  is  toothed  on 

both  edges. 

Single  mill — A  mill  with  one  head  saw. 
Sizer — A  machine  for  surfacing  timber. 
Slasher — Several  circulars  mounted  on  the  same  line  from  16  to  24  inches  apart 

for  cutting  up  slabs,  edging,  etc. 

Solid-tooth  circular  saw — One  in  which  the  teeth  are  cut  into  the  rim  of  the  saw. 
Spring  set — When  one  tooth  in  a  saw  is  sprung  slightly  to  the  right  and  the 

next  one  to  the  left  alternately ;  crosscut  and  narrow  band  saws  are  spring 

set. 

Standard  band  mill — One  having  a  50,000  daily  capacity  from  a  single  band. 
Steam  feed  (or  shotgun  feed) — A  long  cylinder  with  a  piston  which  is  fixed  to 

the  rear  end  of  the  carriage  and  propels  it  back  and  forth. 
Steam  niggers — A  heavy-toothed  lever  worked  by  steam  cylinders  which  is  used 

to  turn  logs  on  the  carriage. 
Sticker — Small  pieces  of  boards  placed  between  courses  in  a  lumber  pile  or  :i 

machine  used  in  a  sash,  door,  and  blind  factory  for  shaping  doors,  sash  rails. 

sash  bars,  and  muntins. 

Swage — A  tool  used  to  spread  the  points  of  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 
Swage  set — Hammering  the  points  of  the  teeth  to  a  width  greater  than  the 

thickness  of  the  saw.     Head  saws  are  usually  spring  set  and  some  rip  saws 

also. 
Taper  lever — A  lever  attached  to  the  knee  of  a  carriage  headblock  which  throws 

either  knee  out  of  alignment  when  cutting  churn-butted  logs. 
Tension — To  make  a  band  or  circular  looser  in  the  middle  than  on  the  cutting 

edge,  by  hammering. 
Throat — The  rounded  cavity  below  the  points  in  which  sawdust  gathers  and  is 

carried  from  the  cut. 
Tire — Is  that  part  of  a  band-saw  blade  1  inch  or  more  back  from  the  throats 

which  has  not  been  stretched  to  conform  with  the  segment  to  which  the  rest 

of  the  blade  is  tensioned.     This  leaves  the  saw  tighter  at  the  tire  than  it  is 

in  the  middle.     The  width  of  the  tire  varies  with  the  width  of  the  saw  and 

the  amount  of  tension  carried. 

To  gig  a  carriage — Running  the  carriage  back  after  a  board  is  cut  from  the  log. 
To  gum  a  saw — To  grind  out  the  throats  of  a  saw. 

To  hammer  a  saw — To  round  it  with  a  hammer  in  order  to  adjust  the  tension. 
To  hang  a  saw — To  place  a  saw  in  position  ready  for  operation. 
To  jack  logs — To  pull  logs  from  the  pond  into  the  mill  on  an  endless  spiked 

chain.    Syn. — Bull  chain,  jacker,  log  haul. 
Top  saw — The  upper  of  two  circular  saws  on  a  head  saw,  both  being  on  the 

same  husk. 
Whip  saw — A  saw  operated  by  two  men  used  to  cut  logs  into  lumber.     Syn.— 

Pit  saw. 

LUMBER  TERMS. 

Backing  board — The  last  board  in  the  log  left  on  the  carriage. 

Barn  boards — Boards  used  for  barn  siding.     The  cracks  between  the  boards 

are  covered  with  battens. 

Base — Interior  trim  which  is  fastened  to  the  walls  of  a  room  at  the  floor  line. 
Battens — Narrow  lumber  used  to  cover  cracks  between  siding  boards. 
Bevel  cribbing — Boards  beveled  on  both  edges,  used  to  cover  the  sides  of  a 

corncrib. 
Bevel  siding— Lap  siding,  siding  weather  board. 


66  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Block  setter — One  who  operates  the  set  works  on  a  sawmill  carriage. 
Blued  lumber — Lumber,  the  sapwood  of  which  has  been  stained  by  fungi. 
Box  boards — Lumber  of  a  specific  quality   from   which  boxes  are  manufac- 
tured. 

Box  shooks — Pieces  of  lumber  cut  to  size  for  boxes  but  not  assembled. 
Break  down — To  cut  a  log  into  cants  or  of  a  size  which  can  be  sawed  on  the 

main  saw. 
Bull  head— A  term  used  by  sawmill  filer  to  describe  the  action  of  a  saw  when 

it  leads  in  or  out  of  a  cut. 

Cant — A  log  which  has  been  slabbed  on  one  or  more  sides. 
Casehardened  lumber — Material,  the  exterior  of  which  is  dry,  while  the  interior 

remains  moist.    The  result  of  quick  drying  in  an  overheated  kiln. 
Ceiling — Lumber  usually  finished  on  one  side  only  and  used  for  wainscoting, 

ceiling  rooms,  etc. 
Chimney — An  opening  left  from  top  to  bottom  in  a  lumber  pile  to  admit  air 

and  hasten  drying. 
Chipped  grain — A  defect  in  lumber  caused  by  the  grain  of  the  wood  being 

torn  out  in  patches  by  the  action  of  the  planer  knives. 
Clapboard — Siding  4  to  6  inches  wide  and  4  to  20  feet  long  tapering  to  a  thin 

edge  on  one  side. 

Case  knot — One  surrounded  wholly  or  partially  by  pitch  or  bark. 
Coarse-grain  lumber— Material  with  wide  annual  rings. 
Comb  grained — The  best  quality  of  quarter-sawed  lumber,  the  growth  rings  of 

which  are  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  board. 
Common  boards — Applied  to  four  grades  of  lumber  of  a  quality  inferior  to 

finish.    The  widths  run  from  4  to  12  inches. 
Common  dimensions — Applied  to  2-inch  stock  ranging  from  4  to  12  inches  wide 

and  3-inch  stock  from  6  to  12  inches  \vide. 
Custom  sawing — The  sawing  of  lumber  under  contract  prices  per  1,000  board 

feet. 
Carriage  setter — Rides  on  the  front  end  of  the  carriage  and  sets  the  dogs  which 

hold  the  log  in  place. 
Drop  siding — A  pattern  of  lumber  used  to  cover  the  exterior  sides  of  buildings. 

Syn. — Cove  siding,  German  siding,  patent  siding,  rustic. 
Face  side — That  side  of  a  board  which  shows  the  best  quality. 
Featheredge — When  a  board  is  found  thinner  on  one  edge  than  it  is  on.  the 

other  it  is  said  to  have  a  featheredge.     Term  also  used  to  describe  an  over- 
sharpened  cutting  edge. 
Feed — The  length  of  lumber  cut  at  one  revolution  of  the  saw,  expressed  in 

inches. 

Fencing — A  grade  of  rough  inch  lumber  4  to  6  inches  wide. 
Fine  grain — Lumber  having  the  annual  rings  close  together. 
Finish  lumber — The  higher  grade  of  lumber  used  for  interior  finish  in  buildings. 
Five-ply  veneer — Made  up  of  five  pieces  of  veneer  glued  one  to  the  other,  also 

called  laminated  wood. 

Flitch — A  thick  piece  of  lumber  with  wane  on  the  edge. 
Furring — A  narrow  strip  of  inch  lumber  which  is  nailed  to  rafters  and  joints 

as  a  backing  for  laths. 
Jointed  flooring — A  flooring  strip  which  instead  of  being  tongued  and  grooved 

has  the  sides  cut  on  a  bevel  edge.     Syn. — Lap  siding. 
Joist — A  dimension  timber  used  to  support  the  floor  of  a  building. 
Knocked  down — A  machine  or  article  taken  apart  in  order  to  facilitate  ship- 
ping.    Abbreviated  as  K.  D. 
Large  knot — One  that  is  over  1£  inches  diameter. 


SMALL   SAWMILLS,   THEIR  EQUIPMENT,  ETC.  67 

Load — In  foreign  markets  1,680  pounds  weight  of  lumber  or  50  cubic  feet  cargo 

space. 

Lumber  tally — The  scale  of  the  log  after  it  is  cut  into  lumber. 
Mill  run — All  of  the  lumber  without  regard  to  grade  which  has  a  shipping  value. 
Moulding — The  narrow  strips  of  lumber  moulded  in  various  patterns  used  in 

interior  finish. 

Odd  lengths — Lumber  trimmed  to  odd  feet,  7,  9,  11,  13,  15. 
Off -bearer — The  man  who  stands  behind  the  saw  and  takes  away  the  lumber  and 

slabs.     Syn. — Tail  sawyer,  swamper. 

Ogee  moulding — One  having  a  double  curve  formed  by  a  concave  and  convex  line. 
Overrun — The  difference  between  the  lumber  tally  and  mill  scale. 
Parbuckle — A  device  for  loading  logs.     It  consists  of  a  chain  or  rope  in  the 

form  of  a  sling  attached  to  the  wagon  or  sled. 
Partition — Lumber  used  for  interior  partitions  where  both  sides  of  the  board 

are  exposed. 

Pile  bottom — The  foundation  (timber  or  concrete)  on  which  lumber  is  piled. 
Pin  knot — A  knot  which  is  sound  and  not  more  than  one-half  inch  in  diameter. 
Pitch — The  angle  between  the  back  of  a  tooth  and  a  line  drawn  from  a  point  of 

the  tooth  to  the  back  of  a  band  saw  or  to  the  center  of  a  circular  saw. 
Pitch  pocket — An  opening  or  space  between  the  annual  rings  containing  pitch 

in  coniferous  trees.    Syn. — Pitch  seams. 
Plain  sawed — All  lumber  which  is  not  quarter  sawed.    Syn. — Flat  grain,  bastard 

grain,  slash  grain. 

Pony  gang — A  saw  crew  of  two  men  who  do  their  own  swamping. 
Porch  decking — A  tongue  and  grooved  board,  the  upper  face  of  which  is  grooved 

in  order  to  carry  off  rain  water. 
Quarter-sawed — In  hardwoods,  when  the  lumber  is  cut  parallel  or  nearly  so 

with  the  medullary  rays.    In  soft  woods,  when  the  growth  rings  do  not  tip 

more  than  45°  from  the  vertical  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  board. 

Syn. — Center  sawed,  comb  grained,  edge  grained,  figure  grained,  rift  sawed, 

silver  grained,  vertical  grained. 
Rip — To  cut  a  board  lengthwise. 
Rock  pine — The  Chicago  name  for  hemlock. 
Sampson — An  upright  lever  used  for  rolling  logs.    It  is  attached  to.  the  log  by  a 

chain. 

Short  length — Lumber  from  4  to  10  feet. 
Sidings — Boards  sawed  from  the  outer  portion  of  a  log  when  the  central  part  is 

made  into  lumber. 
Slack  cooperage — Containers  for  nonliquid  products  consisting  of  two  round 

heads  and  a  body  composed  of  staves  held  together  with  hoops. 
Slat — A  sawed  piece  of  wood  7£  by  2£  by   i   inches,   used   in  pencil   manu- 
facture. 

Small  knot — A  sound  knot  not  more  than  three-fourths  inch  in  diameter. 
Snake — To  make  a  wavy -cut  in  sawing. 
Snipping — The  act  of  rounding  off  the  end  of  a  log  to  prevent  the  latter  from 

sticking  in  the  ground.     Syn. — Sniping. 
Sound  knot — One  which  is  as  solid  and  hard  across  its  face  as  the  surrounding 

wood  and  firm  enough  to  retain  its  place  in  the  board. 
Spike  knot — A  knot  sawed  lengthwise  in  the  board. 
Spline — A  rectangular  strip  of  wood  which  is  substituted  for  the  tongue  on 

heavy  factory  flooring. 

Stepping— A  grade  of  lumber  worked  to  a  size  suitable  for  steps. 
Stock  boards — Of  even  widths,  usually  8,  10,  and  12  inches. 


68  BULLETIN   718,   U.    S.    DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Straight  grain — A  piece  of  lumber  is  said  to  be  straight  grained  when  the 

principal  wood  cells  are  parallel  to  its  length. 

Swamp  hook — A  hook  to  be  attached  to  a  chain  used  for  rolling  logs. 
Tail  sawyer — Off-bearer. 

Tally — A  record  of  the  number  of  pieces  and  grades  which  are  cut  in  the  mill. 
Tight  cooperage — Containers  for  liquids  consisting  of  two  round  heads  and  a 

body  composed 'of  several  staves  held  together  by  hoops  in  such  a  manner  as 

to  hold  liquids. 

Timber — 4  inches  by  4  inches,  and  larger  dimensions. 
To  box  a  log — To  throw  a  log  from  the  log  trough  upon  the  mill  deck  by  means 

of  a  log  kicker. 
To  box  the  heart — To  cut  boards  from  all  sides  of  the  heart,  leaving  the  latter 

as  a  piece  of  timber. 
To  jack  lumber — Means  to  pass  up  boards  to  the  piler  on  top  of  the  pile  by 

leverage  on  an  upright  pole  or  a  short  board  projecting  from  the  front  of  the 

pile. 
To  saw  around  a  log — To  cut  three  or  more  faces  on  a  log  in  order  to  get  the 

best  quality  of  lumber  in  each  cut. 

To  saw  alive — To  make  all  cuts  on  the  log  parallel,  without  canting  the  log. 
Torn  grain — A  defect  on  surfaced  lumber  caused  by  the  fibers  of  the  wood 

being  torn  by  the  planer  knives. 
Uppers — Finish  lumber. 
Veneer — A  thin  piece  of  lumber  cut  on  a  veneer  machine.     There  are  three  kinds 

of  veneer,  viz,  sawed,  sliced,  and  rotary  cut. 

Wane — Bark  or  decrease  in  wood  on  the  edge  of  board,  plank,  or  timber. 
Washboard  lumber — Poorly  sawed  lumber  with  ridges  on  the  face  of  the  boards. 
Woods  scale — The  scale  of  the  logs  made  in  the  woods. 

Wood  fiber — Narrow  shavings  cut  from  a  round  block  of  wood  by  a  special 
r    machine. 
Yard  lumber — Lumber  which  has  been  air  dried. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

C.  I.  F. — Cost,  insurance,  and  freight. 
F.  O.  B—  Free  on  board. 
F.  A.  S. — Free  along  side. 
F.  G. — Flat  grain. 
V.  G. — Vertical  grain. 

C.  I.  F.  E. — Cost,  insurance,  freight,  and  exchange. 

D.  &   H. — Dressed  and  headed.     A  flooring  strip   which  has  been   surfaced, 
tongued,  and  grooved  on  one  side,  and  also  has  a  tongue  on  one  end  and  a 
groove  on  the  other,  so  that  the  joints  may  not  necessarily  come  over  a 
joint. 

D.  &  M. — Dressed-and-matched  boards,  which  have  been  tongued,  grooved,  and 
matched. 

E.  G.— Edge  grain. 

W.  A.  L.— Wider,  all  lengths. 

AW.  &  AL.— All  widths  and  all  lengths. 

5/4,  6/4,  8/4 — 1£  inches,  li  inches,  and  2  inches. 

K.  D. — Kiln  dried  or  knocked  down. 

S.  4S.  C.  S. — Surfaced  on  4  sides  in  the  1/1.6-inch  caulking  seam  on  each  edge. 

S.  M. — Surface  measure. 

SI  S.  IE — Surfaced  on  one  side  and  one  edge. 

T.  B.  &  S.— Top,  bottom,  and  sides. 

T.  &  G. — Tongued  and  grooved. 

o 


25  CENTS 
« 


AN  INITIAL  F  RCTURN 

OVERDUE. 


Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
PAT.  JAN.  2 1,  1908 


^37621 


o4- 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


